THE  WORLD'S 

MEAT  FUTURE 


A.  W.  PEA 


PRESS  NOTICES  OF  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

Melbourne  Leader. — The  author  of  "  The  World's  Meat  Future  "  can 
claim  first-hand  knowledge  of  his  subject.  He  represented  Australian  and 
New  Zealand  Meat  Works  at  the  International  Congresses  of  Refrigeration 
in  Paris  and  Chicago  in  1908  and  1913  respectively,  also  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment at  the  latter  Congress. 

Brisbane  Daily  Mail. — During  the  progress  of  the  war  leading  men  in  the 
Empire  expressed  anxiety  in  regard  to  the  meat  supply,  and  were  of  opinion 
that  after  the  war  there  would  be  a  scarcity  of  meat.  Statements  of  such 
vital  importance  to  the  Empire  must  impress  everyone,  and  they  are  dealt 
with  in  a  comprehensive  manner  in  "  The  World's  Meat  Future."  Mr.  Pearse 
is  well  able  to  deal  with  such  a  great  subject,  and  his  book  is  one  that  will 
easily  be  recognised  as  an  authoritative  volume  all  over  the  world. 

The  Mercury  (Adelaide). — "  The  World's  Meat  Future  "  is  of  considerable 
interest  to  persons  either  directly  or  indirectly  engaged  in  the  pastoral  indus- 
try. The  author  has  a  sound  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Evening  Herald  (Melbourne). — Knowledge  and  the  capability  to  impart 
it  in  an  interesting  and  instructive  way  belong  to  the  author  of  "  The  World's 
Meat  Future."  The  book  contains  a  great  deal  of  very  valuable  informa- 
tion not  only  to  stock-owners  but  to  the  general  public.  The  publication 
comes  at  a  very  opportune  time,  when  everybody  is  more  or  less  interested 
in  the  m^at  supply. 

Evening  News  (Sydney). — "  The  World's  Meat  Future  "  is  an  able  and 
conscientious  effort  to  condense  the  necessary  knowledge  of  the  exact  place 
and  prospects  of  meat  in  the  world  into  nearly  300  carefully  wrought  pages. 
The  author's  qualifications  for  the  task  are,  of  course,  well  known.  It  is 
impossible  in  a  review  to  condense  moie  than  a  fraction  of  the  wealth  of  fact 
and  carefully  weighed  opinion  in  the  book,  which  will  repay  the  close  study 
of  everyone  who  desires  to  be  well  grounded  in  the  meat  question. 

The  Age  (Melbourne). — "  The  World's  Meat  Future  "  gives  an  exhaustive 
account  of  the  live  stock  position  and  meat  prospects  of  all  the  leading  stock 
3ountries  of  the  world. 

The  Australian  Meat  Trade  Jo  wmaZ(  Sydney). — The  author  of  "The World's 
Meat  Future  "  is  particularly  well  qualified  to  deal  with  his  subject,  for  he 
has  been  closely  associated  with  the  development  of  the  meat  industry, 
sspecially  in  connection  with  refrigeration  and  cold  storage,  for  the  past 
twenty-five  years. 

Sydney  Morning  Herald. — Almost  everyone  wants  to  know  what  is  going 
to  be  the  position  of  our  meat  supply  and  the  export  outlook  now  that  the 
war  is  over.  In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  trade,  a  timely  contribution 
to  the  subject  comes  to  us  in  form  of  an  excellent  publication — "  The  World's 
Meat  Future." 

The  Register  (Adelaide). — A  volume  which  will  be  read  with  deep  interest 
and  appreciation  is  "  The  World's  Meat  Future."  The  letterpress  throughout 
is  liberally  illustrated  with  photographic  reproductions  and  diagrams. 

Sydney  Stock  and  Station  Journal. — Mr.  A.  W.  Pearse,  F.B.G.S.,  editor  of 
that  unrivalled  publication,  The  Pastoral  Review,  has  just  published  a  book 
on  "  The  World's  Meat  Future,"  and  it  is  timely,  authoritative,  comprehen- 
sive, educational,  up-to-date,  and  full  of  interest.  It  deserves  the  widest 
circulation,  and  we  would  recommend  it  to  stock-owners  everywhere  ;  also 
we  would  like  to  see  every  politician  in  Australia  read,  mark,  and  inwardly 
digest  this  book.  It  is  just  as  useful  in  one  country  as  another. 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


THE  WORLDS  MEAT 
FUTURE 


AN   ACCOUNT   OF   THE    LIVE    STOCK   POSITION    AND 

MEAT   PROSPECTS   OF   ALL  LEADING   STOCK 

COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD  WITH  FULL 

LISTS   OF    FREEZING    WORKS 


BY 

A.   W.   PJEARSE,    F.R.G.S. 

EDITOR  OK  "THE  PASTORAL  REVIEW'' 
MELBOURNE,  SYDNEY,  ADELAIDE,  BRISBANE,  PERTH,  LAUNCESTON 


WITH  AN  INTRODUCTION    BY 

SIR  OWEN  COX,  K.B.E. 

COMMONWEALTH    MEAT    ADVISER 


SECOND    EDITION 


NEW  YORK 

E.  P.  DUTTON  &  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


MAIN  LiBRARY.AGRICULTURE  DEMI 


Printed  in  Great  Britain 


INTRODUCTION 

ONE  of  the  most  important  questions  at  the  present  time, 
when  the  peace  negotiations  are  settled,  is  that  which  forms 
the  subject  matter  of  this  book.  Everybody  wants  to  know 
what  is  going  to  be  the  position  of  the  meat  supply,  and  all 
sorts  of  prognostications  are  being  given  expression  to.  No 
one  should  have  a  better  idea  of  the  possibilities  of  stock  rais- 
ing in  various  countries  than  Mr.  A.  W.  Pearse.  For  twenty- 
seven  years  he  has  been  closely  identified  with  the  meat  in- 
dustry, not  only  in  Australia,  but  in  most  of  the  stock-raising 
countries  of  the  world.  The  newspaper  of  which  he  is  the  editor 
and  proprietor  (The  Pastoral  Review)  circulates  in  all  stock 
countries,  and  I  don't  suppose  there  are  many  men  interested 
in  the  meat  trade  who  do  not  eagerly  look  for  and  read  the 
information  he  supplies.  His  paper  alone  has  well-paid 
representatives  and  experts  in  most  countries  where  stock  are 
reared,  and  direct  and  authentic  information  and  tables  of 
exports  are  regularly  forwarded  by  them.  So  satisfied  are  the 
meat  firms  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  with  his  capability 
and  knowledge  that  on  two  occasions  he  has  been  the  repre- 
sentative of  all  the  meat -exporting  companies  of  Australia 
and  New  Zealand  at  International  Congresses,  the  first  in  Paris 
in,  1908,  and  the  second  in  Chicago  in  1913.  At  the  last  con- 
ference he  also  represented  the  Federal  Government  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  read  a  paper  on  the  world's  meat  export  trade  before 
a  vast  gathering  of  experts  from  all  over  the  world.  Most  of 
his  knowledge  has  been  gained  first  hand.  He  has  visited  the 
States  of  South  America  and  Africa  several  times,  and  when 
the  war  broke  out  was  booked  for  a  trip  through  Siberia  to 
gather  information  and  prospects  there.  There  may  be 
readers  who  will  not  agree  with  all  his  conclusions,  but  I  have 
no  doubt  the  information  he  gives  will  add  largely  to  our 


IX 


^93938 


x  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

knowledge  of  what  we  can  expect  in  the  way  of  meat  supplies 
in  the  near  future.  The  Pastoral  Review,  of  which  he  is  editor, 
is  certainly  looked  upon  by  those  concerned  in  the  trade  as 
the  standard  paper  and  "  enquire  within  "  for  all  matters 
connected  with  live  stock  and  meat  exports  in  all  parts  of 
the  world. 

E.  OWEN  Cox,  K.B.E. 

Commonwealth  Meat  Administrator.  Deputy  Con- 
troller of  Overseas  Shipping.  Member  of  the  Common- 
wealth Government  Shipping  Board.  Chairman  of  The 
Overseas  Central  Committee,  which  has  the  disposition 
of  the  whole  of  the  tonnage  loading  oversea  from  Australia 
and  British  Government  tonnage.  Director  in  Australia 
of  the  Federal  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  Ltd.,  and  Chair- 
man of  the  Australian  Frozen  Msat  Shipping  Committee 
for  the  Imperial  Government. 

Sydney,  Nov.  6,  1918. 


FOREWORD 

IN  venturing  to  publish  this  book,  the  author  does  so  in  the 
hope  that  it  may  be  of  service  to  those  interested  in  the  food 
problems  which  are  before  us.  It  should  also  be  of  use  to  those 
stock-owners  all  over  the  world  who  are  anxious  about  the 
future  of  the  stock-raising  industry. 

For  several  years  prior  to  the  war  it  was  a  widely  held 
theory  that  the  world's  meat  consumption  was  overtaking 
the  supply.  Not  so  much  to  combat  this  belief  as  to  furnish 
the  industries  concerned  with  the  fullest  facts  governing  the 
future  as  well  as  the  present  position,  I  have  published  from 
time  to  time  in  The  Pastoral  Review  particulars  of  progress 
and  development  of  meat  production  in  the  later  fields  of 
enterprise  as  well  as  in  the  domains  of  more  mature  exploita- 
tion of  this  resource  of  Nature.  The  assembling  of  this  and 
much  other  information  within  the  covers  of  the  present 
volume  is,  I  think,  the  first  attempt  to  treat  the  subject  at 
all  comprehensively. 

It  will  be  seen  that  I  am  not  pessimistic  as  regards  the  iqeat 
supply  of  the  future,  and  I  hold  that  for  many  years  cat.tle  and 
sheep  raising  are  going  to  be  the  most  profitable  of  all  indus- 
tries. There  are  no  better  prospects  for  young  men  than  in 
the  healthiest  and  cleanest  of  all  professions — that  of  stock 
raising — provided  that  before  they  launch  out  on  their  venture 
they  obtain  the  necessary  practical  knowledge  and  experience. 
Wool  and  meat- will  always  be  in  strong  demand,  and  there 
is  no  sign  that  either  will  be  in  over  supply  for  many  years. 
Governments  must  assist  and  not  handicap  the  stock-breeders, 
and  minimum  prices,  not  maximum,  should  be  the  rule  if  prices 
have  to  be  fixed  at  all.  The  cities  are  entirely  Dependent  upon 
the  producer.  "  Destroy  your  country,  and  the  grass  will 
grow  in  the  streets  of  your  cities,  but  make  the  country  pros- 
perous and  the  cities  will  Jump  ahead  in  prosperity." 

xi 


xii  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

In  describing  area,  climate,  and  pastoral  conditions  of  some 
of  the  Central  American  Republics  not  visited  by  me  during 
recent  years,  I  have  had  recourse  to  those  splendid  books, 
The  Great  *  States  of  South  America,  by  C.  W.  Domville-Fife  ; 
Brazil  and  the  Brazilians,  by  G.  J.  Bruce;  Brazil  in  1913,  by 
J.  C.  Oakenfall ;  Argentine  and  Uruguay,  by  Gordon  Ross  ; 
and  Central  America,  by  W.  H.  Koebel. 

A.  W.  P. 

June  30^,  1919  . 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTION    BY    SIR    E.    OWEN    Cox,    K.B.E.,    AUSTRALIAN    MEAT 

ADMINISTRATOR         .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .        ix 

FOREWORD     ...........        xi 

THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  .......         1 

SUMMARY  OF  MEAT  SUPPLIES  .          .          .          .          .          .          .17 

TRADE  AND  EMPIRE         .........       21 

AUSTRALIA     ...........       27 

,,  CAUSES   OF   SHORTAGE  IN  LIVE   STOCK   AND  SUGGESTED 

REMEDIES      .          .          .          .          .          .          .       ^.       32 

,,  DIAGRAMS  OF  MEAT  EXPORTS         .          .          .          .          .38 

CLIMATIC  CONTROL  OF  PRODUCTION        ....       40 

,,  RECONSTRUCTION  AND  EXPANSION  .          .          .          .43 

,,  DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  THE  ABOVE       ....       53 

„  THE  INDIAN  ZEBU  FOR  AUSTRALIA         .          .          .          .55 

,,  FIXING  PRICES      .  -".          .          .          .          .          .59 

„  CATTLE  PROSPECTS  IN  WESTERN  AUSTRALIA  .          .          .61 

NEW  ZEALAND        ..........       65 

,,  THE  FROZEN  MEAT  TRADE    .....       66 

ARGENTINA    ...........       83 

,,  SHORTHORNS  .          .          .          .          .  '  .          .96 

„  TlERRA  DEL  FUEGO  AND  SOUTHERN  PATAGpNIA      .         .       97 

,,  THE  ARGENTINE  MESOPOTAMIA       .          ,7.         .         .110 

,,  THE  BACK  COUNTRY      .          .          .          .          .          .          .118 

THE  PLATE  COAST  BELT 124 

,,  REFRIGERATOR  MOTOR  TRUCKS       .          .          .          .          .129 

,,  ARGENTINE  MEAT  CONSUMPTION  AND  EXPORT          .          .130 

„  FRIGORIFICOS  AND  MEAT  FACTORIES        .          .  .131 

,,  EXPORTATION         .          .          .          .          .          .          •          .132 

HOME  CONSUMPTION      ....  .132 

,,  CATTLE  WEIGHTS — LIVE  AND  DEAD         .          .  .133 

BRAZIL  ........•••     134 

,.         BRAZIL  AS  A  PASTORAL  COUNTRY         .          .          .          .          .143 

URUGUAY       .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .150 

PARAGUAY     .........  •     I52 

CHILE  .155 

PATAGONIA     ...........     I56 

UNITED  STATES       ......  .159 

,,  CENTRALIZED  LIVE-STOCK  MARKETING        .  •     162 

IMPROVING  POWER  OF  THE  SHORTHORN      .          .          .166 


XIV 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


PAGE 

171 


17« 


UNITED  STATES  :  BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE 

THE  HEREFORD,  POLLED  HEREFORDS,  ABERDEEN- 
ANGUS,  THE  GALLOWAY,  DUAL-PURPOSE  BREEDS. 
SHORTHORNS,  RED  POLLS,  DEVONS,  BRAHMAN 
CATTLE  .  ...••• 

CANADA 

QUALITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE 
SCORE  CARD  FOR  BEEF  STEER    . 
MAKING  BABY  BEEF  IN  ALBERTA 
POINTS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE    . 

MEXICO  .          .  •  •  -202 

VENEZUELA    .          .          .          .          •          «          •          •          •          • 

91 1 

BRITISH  GUIANA    ....-••  ^AA 

ECUADOR 

COLOMBIA 

217 

HONDURAS    ,...-'••• 
BOLIVIA          .          .          .          ... 

PERU  221 

RHODESIA      ... 

,,          BUILDING  UP  THE  HERDS 

„         COMING  BEEF  EXPORTS  .... 

SOUTH  AFRICA        ....  .....    .240 

„  SHEEP  BREEDING     ....  •     250 

M*ADAGASCAR          .         .         . 
„  MUTTON  EXPORTS 

MOROCCO       ...........     263 

LIVE  STOCK 264 

LAND      ....  .265 

BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA     ......  .  266 

SOUTH- WEST  AFRICA       .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .278 

EGYPT  AND  THE  SOUDAN         .          .          .          .          .          .          .  279 

SHEEP  IN  EGYPT  AND  SOUTHERN  PALESTINE      .....     282 

NIGERIA .290 

ABYSSINIA,  SOMALILAND  AND  THE  CAMEROONS          ....     292 

CHINA 293 

SIBERIA .295 

THE  PACIFIC  ISLANDS,  (Fiji,  NEW  CALEDONIA,  SANDWICH  GROUP)     .     297 

JAPAN .301 

INNOVATION  IN  MUTTON  STOWAGE  .          .          .          .          .          .     302 

DIPPING  CATTLE     ....          .          .....     304 

CATTLE  TICK  ERADICATION     ........     ^07 

DEHORNING  CATTLE        .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .     313 

LIVE  AND  DRESSED  WEIGHTS          .          .          .          .          .          .          .315 

VENISON         .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .317 

STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  BODY  WEIGHTS,  GAINS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  OF 

STEERS 'DURING  THE  FATTENING  PERIOD,  WITH  TABLES      .          .318 
LIST  OF  MEAT  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  WORKS  IN  AUSTRALIA,  NEW 
ZEALAND,  ARGENTINA,  PATAGONIA,  URUGUAY,  PARAGUAY,  BRAZIL, 
VENEZUELA      ...  326 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Bullocks  Watering  on  the  Lachlan   .....  Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Champion  Hereford  Heifer        .          .          .          .          .  .        .          .          .16 

Shorthorn  Cow  and  Bull  Calf   .  22 

Champion  Hereford  Bull  ........        24 

Australia  :  Cattle  at  a  Dam  (Victoria)        ......        26 

Stud  Shorthorn  Cow  (New  South  Wales)  ....       28 

,,  Champion  Shorthorn  Bull         .          .          .          .          .          .29 

„  Aberdeen  Angus  Cow  (Queensland)  .          .          .          .          .31 

Shorthorn  Bull  (Sydney) 33 

,,  One  of  the  Paddocks  (Western  Australia)  .          .          .41 

,,  Aberdeen  Angus  Bull  (Champion)     .          .          .          .          .43 

Hereford  Bull         .          .          .          .          .          .   '       .          .44 

,,  Champion  Cow  of  Australia      ....  .45 

,,  Shorthorn  Cow  (Champion)      ......       47 

Fat  Bullocks  (Queensland)        .          .          .          .\         .          .49 

„  Shorthorn  Bull  (Queensland)    .          .          .          .          .          .51 

„  Stud  Shorthorn  Bull  (New  South  Wales)  .  .          .52 

,,  Shorthorn  Bull  (Champion)      ......        54 

Hereford  Bull  „ 55 

Hereford  Cow  „  ..*....       56 

The  Zebu — Shorthorn  Cross 58 

New  Zealand  :  A  Maori  War  Worker         ......       66 

Pastoral  Scene 67 

Stud  Romney  Sheep  .          .          .          .          .          .69 

Fat  Bullocks 70 

Wool  Shed  and  Flock  of  Sheep 71 

,,  Stud  Romney  Sheep  .          .          .          .          .          .73 

Hereford  Cattle 75 

Whakatane  Meat  Works 77 

,,  Meat  Works  at  Kaiapoi      .          .          .          .          .          .78 

Stud  Romney  Sheep       79 

Argei  ana  :  Durham  Cattle  at  Curumalan  .....        85 

,,  An  Estancia  Homestead          ......        87 

Breeding  Mares  "  El  Socorro  "...  .89 

"  Freezer "  Store  Cattle  ....  .91 

Shorthorn  Bull  (Champion)     ....  .92 

,,  Shorthorn  Cow  „  ......        93 

Hereford  Bull  „ 95 

Hereford  Cow        .  .       97 

xv 


xvi  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

PACE 

Argentina  :    Fat  Shorthorn  Bullock  .  .          .          .          .          .          .99 

Patagonia  :   Group  of  Sheep     .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .101 

Argentina  :    Cattle  Dip    .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .103 

„  Shorthorn  Cow      .  .          .          .          .  •        .          .          .      133 

Brazil :  Typical  Cattle — Shorthorn  Cross  .          .          .          .          .135 

United  States  :   Shorthorn  Bull  (Champion) 160 

„  Shorthorn  Cow  „  .          .          .          .          .163 

Hereford  Bull  „  169 

Shorthorn  Bull  „  .          .          .          .          .173 

Canada:   Range  Cattle    .          .          .          .-,'•.          .          .          .      191 

Shorthorn  Cows         .          .       §.;:        .          .          .          .          .193 

„  Shorthorn  Bull  .          .          .     '.   .          .          .          .          .      195 

Mob  of  Cattle  at  Indian  Head     .;>./.          .          .          .197 

„  Points  of  Beef  Cattle          .          .          ,          ....     200 

Honduras:   Shorthorn  Half -Blood  Bull      ...          .          .          .218 

South  Africa  :   A  Typical  Karroo  Scene      .  .          .          .     241 

Cattle  Crossing  a  River  (Natal)   .          .          .          .          .     245 

Zebu  Heifer      .          .          .          ,          .          .          .          .247 

„  Merino  Rams    .      ;/.      .  ,>'    -    •  :,.      •          .          .          .      248 

Madagascar:   Soissonnais  and  Rambouillet  Rams    t  -\'\''      •          •          •      255 

Native  Bull        .          .      ,    ,          . .        .          .          .          .257 

East  Africa :   A  Congoni  .          .          .          .          ....     267 

„  The  Naivasha  Stud  Farm  Manager         ....     273 

'Egypt  :  Young  Cows  (Improved)      .          .          .          .          .          .          .     279 

Native  Bull 280 

Native  Bull,  Improved  (2226  Ibs.) 281 

Solomon  Islands  :   Zebu  Bull   .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .297 

Pacific  Islands  :   One  of  the  Paddocks  on  an  Estate     ....      299 

Mutton  Carcases  :  New  Mode  of  Cutting  for  Export    ....     302 

Tick-Infested  Ox  Skin      .          .,.'._ 308 

England  :  The  King's  Shorthorns  at  Windsor    .          .  .          .149 

Lord  Rothschild's  Red  Polls  at  Tring          .          .          .          .188 

„  Lord  Rothschild's  Hampshire  Down  Sheep  .          .          .216 

„  Lord  Rothschild's  Hampshire  Down  Ewes  .          .          .219 

„  Group  of  Heifers  and  Cows        ......      222 

„  Mr.  J.  E.  Quested's  (Kent)  Dairy  Cattle     ....     277 

The  King's  Herefords 291 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


LORD  HARCOURT  recently  said  in  the  House  of  Lords  that 
while  he  was  acting  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  in  1916, 
he  acquired  information  which  caused  him  the  greatest  anxiety 
in  regard  to  the  meat  supply,  and  added,  "  After  the  war  there 
will  be  a  scarcity  of  meat — almost  a  war  famine.  Germany, 
Belgium,  and  Holland  are  faced  with  a  post-war  deficit  of 
8,000,000  head  of  cattle,  and  Denmark,  Austria,  Servia  and 
Roumania  another  8,000,000.  Europe,  therefore,  will  seek 
to  import  from  16  million  to  20  million  head  of  cattle.  Britain 
produces  only  60  per  cent  of  the  meat  consumed.  I  am  so 
impressed  with  the  seriousness  of  the  position  last  year  that  I 
have  sought  to  arrange  a  scheme  for  securing  a  supply  of 
chilled  meat,  which  will  be  ample  for  Britain  for  several  years 
after  the  war." 

This  statement,  by  a  prominent  British  statesman,  is  of  such 
vital  importance  to  the  Empire  that  to  the  best  of  my  ability  I 
am  going  to  place  before  those  who  care  to  read  it,  the  position 
to-day  in  the  various  stock-raising  countries  of  the  world. 

At  the  outset,  I  may  say  that  I  fear  the  information  given 
to  Lord  Harcourt  must  have  been  of  a  hasty  character. 
Granted  that  the  shortage  in  the  seven  European  countries 
named  would  amount  to  16,000,000  head  of  cattle,  that  does 
not  mean  that  a  similar  number  or  more  would  have  to  be 
imported  to  make  up  the  shortage.  First  of  all  there  will  be 
probably  16,000,000  to  20,000,000  adults  less  to  eat  meat,  and 
the  children,  or  those  of  them  left  alive,  will  not  by  any  means 
require  so  much  meat  for  a  few  years  after  the  war.  Probably 
countries  like  Denmark,  Holland,  Germany  and  Austria  will 
have  kept  a  large  proportion  of  breeding  stock,  and  in  three 
or  four  years  a  very  large  increase  of  young  cattle  may  be 
looked  for,  particularly  if  they  buy  bulls  from  Britain,  United 


2  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

States,  or  Canada,  where  there  is  plenty  of  young  male  stock 
available.  Meantime  people  will  have  learned  economy,  the  use 
of  horse  and  whale  flesh,  and  the  larger  use  of  fish  and  cereals, 
besides  which  there  is  not  the  necessity  they  imagined  for  so 
big  a  meat  diet. 

As  regards  Great  Britain's  meat  supply,  the  war  has  in  no 
way  diminished  her  flocks  and  herds  ;  in  fact,  if  anything,  they 
are  larger  than  before  the  war.  The  total  cattle  at  the  end  of 
1916  being  12,451,450,  and  the  sheep  28,849,655.  Imagine  in 
little  Britain  2,000,000  more  cattle  than  in  all  Australia.  This 
is  the  more  wonderful  when  we  realise  that  over  2,500,000  acres 
of  grazing  lands  have  been  put  under  crop.  The  British  people 
have  also  learned  the  much  needed  lesson  of  economy,  and  after 
the  war  there  will  not  be  the  enormous  waste  there  has  been  in 
the  past.  Cold  meat  will  not  again  be  thrown  away  wholesale 
to  the  pigs  and  the  dogs,  it  will  be  utilised  as  it  should  be.  Again, 
many  foods  have  taken  the  place  of  meat,  and  the  people  have 
discovered  that  they  are  much  healthier  on  a  smaller  meat  diet. 
Taking  the  population  of  Greater  London,  which  represents 
roughly  the  area  supplied  from  Smithfield,  at  7,500,000,  it  can 
be  seen  that  the  Capital  is  now  apparently  consuming  much  less 
meat  than  before  the  war,  the  quantity  marketed  during  1917 
being  only  1.62  Ibs.  per  head  per  week,  i.e.  including  bacon, 
poultry,  game,  etc.,  as  against  2.48  Ibs.  per  head  in  1913.  The 
Empire's  armies  will  get  back  to  Australia,  New  Zealand, 
Canada,  and  India,  where  there  is  more  than  ample  meat  for 
all  their  wants,  and  it  will  be  found  that  instead  of  37  per  cent 
of  meat  having  to  be  imported,  which  before  the  war  was 
Britain's  requirements  from  abroad,  probably  20  per  cent  or 
25  per  cent  only  will  be  needed.  Sixty-three  per  cent  of  the 
total  meat  supply  of  Great  Britain  before  the  war  was  home 
grown.  Of  the  imported  meat  supply  (37  per  cent),  Argentina 
supplied  80  per  cent  of  the  beef,  and  Australia  12  per  cent, 
the  balance  coming  from  various  sources.  New  Zealand  sup- 
plied 40  per  cent,  Australia  25  per  cent,  and  Argentina  29  per 
cent  of  the  imported  mutton  and  lamb. 

The  flocks  and  herds  in  France  have  not  decreased  since  1916, 
in  fact  they  have  increased,  but  from  the  commencement  of  the 
war  until  that  year  the  sheep  flocks  fell  away  by  30  per  cent. 


THE    WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE  3 

With  the  introduction  of  studs  from  Britain,  however,  they 
will  rapidly  gain  in  number  and  in  weight.  In  July,  1917, 
their  Census  Returns  accounted  for  12,443,304  cattle,  10,586,594 
sheep,  and  4,200,280  pigs.  Supplies  of  home-grown  meat  for 
the  civil  population  were  accordingly  fairly  plentiful. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  are  several  countries  in 
Europe  with  enormous  populations  which  make  grain  of  various 
sorts  their  main  food  supply ;  therefore,  in  investigating  the 
requirements  for  meat,  it  is  well  to  remember  this  important 
factor,  and  those  countries  can  be  put  on  one  side,  as  their 
main  food  supply  will  come  out  of  the  ground.  Again,  there 
are  many  nations  whose  people  are  meat  eaters  yet  are  not 
so  fastidious  as  we  are  and  use  horse  flesh,  whale  flesh,  and 
other  meats  which  the  average  Britisher  or  American  refuses 
to  touch. 

The  world's  export  output  of  frozen  and  chilled  beef,  mutton 
and  lamb  in  1917  was  estimated  at  965,000  tons,  as  against 
915,380  tons  in  1916,  881,075  tons  in  1915,  and  800,375  tons  in 
1914 — a  steady  rate  of  expansion  which  was  very  satisfactory, 
under  war  conditions.  From  these  yearly  totals,  about  386,000 
tons,  381,569  tons,  218,150  tons,  and  105,948  tons  respectively 
were  diverted  to  markets  other  than  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  nations  which  are  mainly  beef,  mutton,  and  pork  eaters 
are  the  British  Empire,  United  States,  Germany,  France,  and 
a  few  other  smaller  countries  in  Europe  ;  also  most  of  the 
South  American  Republics.  These  are  the  countries  whose 
supply  and  demand  must  be  looked  at  when  investigating  the 
condition  and  prospects  of  the  meat  trade  of  the  world,  and  I 
propose  to  take  them  in  the  order  of  their  importance. 

Many  of  the  countries  I  shall  describe  have  been  visited  by 
myself  during  the  last  thirty  years  with  the  particular  object 
of  studying  their  pastoral  capabilities  for  the  information  of 
the  graziers  of  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  Therefore  this 
matter  of  stock  and  meat  supplies  comes  in  very  opportunely. 
Russian  requirements  may  be  left  out  of  the  question.  When 
these  people  settle  down,  introduce  law  and  discipline,  and  have 
shot  the  men  who  have  brought  the  country  to  its  present 
pitiable  condition,  they  will  be  able  to  draw  what  meat  they  will 
temporarily  require  from  the  vast  plains  of  Siberia,  Manchuria, 


4  THE    WORLD'S   MEAT  FUTURE 

and  China,  where  there  are  great  herds  of  cattle  available. 
Hard  times  for  a  year  or  two  will  be  the  fate  of  several  of 
the  Balkan  States,  but  grain  and  potatoes  are  their  prin- 
cipal foods,  as  I  have  stated  before.  It  is  gratifying  to 
see  that  Sir  Henry  Rew,  the  well-known  food  statistician, 
agrees  with  my  view.  In  a  recent  address  before  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society,  he  said  :  "It  appears  that  during  the  war 
a  very  substantial  stimulus  has  been  given  to  overseas  trade 
in  meat,  and  that  sources  of  supply  hitherto  almost  untapped 
have  been  developed.  It  is  clear  that  what  may  be  termed  the 
old  reservoirs  from  whence  meat  supplies  have  been  drawn  are 
expanding  and  are  capable  of  further  expansion.  There  are 
also  new  and  vigorous  competitors  for  the  world's  trade." 

Refrigerated  tonnage  after  Peace  is  signed  will  be  more  than 
ample  for  all  requirements,  notwithstanding  the  submarines. 
Great  Britain  had  more  refrigerated  tonnage  at  the  end  of 
last  year  than  she  had  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  it 
must  also  be  remembered  that  Italy,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  other  countries  are  building  up  quite  a  big  fleet  of 
refrigerated  steamers. 

THE  FOLLOWING  IS  A  LIST  OF  THE  CHIEF  STOCK-PRODUCING 
COUNTRIES  OF  THE  WORLD  : — 

Australia.  Peru. 

New  Zealand.  Rhodesia. 

Argentina.  British  East  Africa. 

Brazil.  Union  of  South  Africa. 

Uruguay.  Bechuanaland. 

United  States.  S.W.  Africa. 

Canada.  Nigeria. 

Paraguay.  Morocco. 

Mexico.  Madagascar. 

Cuba.  Egypt. 

Nicaragua.  Soudan. 

Venezuela.  Abyssinia. 

Colombia.  Somaliland. 

Honduras.  Cameroons. 

Chile.  Algeria. 

Guatemala.  Manchuria. 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  5 

All  the  above-mentioned  countries  possess  a  more  or  less 
large  supply  of  sheep  and  cattle  of  more  or  less  satisfactory 
quality.  Most  of  them  have  vast  areas  of  fine  grazing  land, 
many  with  excellent  climate  and  with  plenty  of  rivers.  With 
one  or  two  exceptions  they  are  countries  fit  for  the  white  men 
to  live  and  thrive  in  ;  many  of  them  are  sparsely  populated, 
and  land  is  to  be  obtained  at  moderate  cost. 

With  the  introduction  of  good  stud  animals  to  those  countries 
which  are  yet  in  their  undeveloped  condition,  the  installation 
of  numerous  dips,  and  with  stable  governments,  in  a  very  few 
years  they  could  most  of  them  be  brought  to  the  meat -export- 
ing stage.  The  past  experience  in  Argentina  and  Uruguay,  and 
the  present  experience  in  Brazil,  are  sufficient  to  show  the  more 
backward  countries  what  they  may  look  forward  to  under 
modern  business  methods.  The  great  need  in  most  new  coun- 
tries is  for  animals  that  will  improve  the  native  stocks  so  that 
they  may  increase  in  weight,  shape  and  quality.  That  such 
animals  are  procurable,  and  even  in  large  numbers,  in  Great 
Britain,  the*  United  States,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Argen- 
tina, is  quite  evident  if  one  visits  the  magnificent  stock  shows 
in  those  countries.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  available  of  high-class 
quality,  of  all  breeds,  and  to  suit  all  climates  and  pastures,  and 
directly  the  world  settles  down  after  this  war-madness  is 
quenched,  it  is  highly  probable  that  men  will  be  touring  those 
countries  and  buying  largely  to  improve  their  backward  flocks 
and  herds.  The  stud  breeder  is  doing  an  international  work, 
and  should  be  encouraged  by  the  Governments  of  the  countries 
in  which  he  is  carrying  on  his  good  work. 

The  Latin- American  Division  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce  lately  prepared  a  report  on  the  meat- 
packing industry  in  South  America,  with  the  view  of  showing 
that  that  continent,  with  its  increasing  areas  suitable  for  cattle 
raising  and  its  meat-packing  establishments,  is  in  a  position 
to  play  an  important  part  in  the  world's  meat  production  in 
the  future.  This  report  says  that  one  of  the  most  serious 
questions  confronting  the  countries  of  the  world  is  that  of  the 
meat  supply  of  the  future.  For  nearly  a  decade  the  number 
of  cattle  has  not  been  increasing  in  proportion  to  the  demands 
of  the  growing  populations.  The  decrease  in  the  supply  of 


6  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

meat  has  affected  the  United  States  as  well  as  Europe.  Russia, 
which  before  the  war  had  some  50,000,000  head  of  cattle  and 
two-thirds  as  many  sheep  as  Australia,  has  ceased,  temporarily 
at  least,  to  be  a  factor  in  the  European  trade.  The  herds  of 
western  Europe,  small  before  the  war  in  comparison  with  the 
demands  of  the  increasing  population,  are  now  greatly  depleted 
and  cannot  be  replaced  for  many  years  after  the  war.  The 
situation  in  the  United  States  is  reaching  an  interesting  stage. 
Within  the  last  ten  years  the  population  has  increased  about 
18  per  cent,  while  the  herds  have  decreased  20  per  cent.  In 
1893  the  United  States  imported  3293  head  of  cattle,  and  from 
its  abundant  supply  exported  over  287,000.  In  1915,  twenty- 
three  years  later,  the  import  and  export  figures  are  practically 
reversed.  In  the  latter  year  the  United  States  exported  only 
5484  head  and  imported  538,167  cattle.  However,  since  this 
report  was  issued,  the  export  of  meat  has  'again  assumed 
enormous  proportions  through  the  increase  of  stock  and  the 
magnificent  economy  of  the  American  people. 

The  report  goes  on  to  ask  whether  South  America,  with  its 
extensive  areas  suitable  for  cattle  raising,  and  its  growing  meat- 
packing plants,  will  help  to  relieve  the  situation  ?  The  outlook 
in  that  direction  is,  indeed,  favourable.  Already  Argentina  and 
Uruguay,  and  in  a  lesser  degree  Brazil,  Colombia,  and  some  of 
the  other  countries,  are  figuring  as  meat-producing  possibilities. 
In  the  development  of  this  industry,  the  general  installation  of 
refrigeration  by  steamship  lines  has  been  of  great  service. 

In  South  America  stock  breeding  is  a  resultant  industry  of 
meat  freezing.  Before  the  introduction  of  refrigeration,  salted 
and  dried  meali,  tough  and  unpalatable,  was  in  general  use 
locally  and  exported  in  limited  quantities  to  Europe.  This 
meat  is  known  variously  as  jerked  beef,  in  Argentina  as  tasajo, 
as  xarque  in  Brazil,  in  Peru  as  charque,  and  as  biltong  in 
Africa.  It  is  still  used  in  some  parts  of  South  America  and  in 
the  Tropics,  where  it  is  almost  impossible  to  keep  fresh  meat, 
but  it  has  never  been  popular  in  Europe.  As  the  saladeros 
(meat-drying  establishments)  could  make  use  of  almost  any 
animal,  and  since  the  demand  was  quite  limited,  there  was 
really  no  incentive  to  breed  fine  stock. 

Stimulated  by  the  increasing  demand  from  Europe  for  im- 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  7 

ported  fresh  meat,  attempts  were  made  to  export  cattle  on  the 
hoof.  These,  however,  proved  unsuccessful  owing  to  the  out- 
break of  foot-and-mouth  disease  and  the  extra  expense  entailed. 
Then  the  meat-packing  and,  indirectly,  the  stock-raising  in- 
dustries were  revolutionised  by  the  introduction  of  refrigera- 
tion. This  made  possible  the  shipping  of  frozen  and  chilled 
meat.  Chilled  meat  has  a  much  more  delicate  flavour  than  the 
solidly  frozen  meat,  and  normally  brings  1J  to  2J  pence  a 
pound  more  on  the  English  market,  but  it  must  be  used  im- 
mediately after  removing  from  cold  storage. 

Argentina  is  to-day  the  most  important  beef-producing 
country  of  the  world.  Brazil  is  beginning  to  appreciate  its 
own  potentialities  as  a  meat  producer,  and  is  likely  to  become 
a  powerful  rival  in  the  near  future.  Uruguay  has  maintained 
a  leading  position,  while  Paraguay,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela 
are  among  the  countries  that  are  receiving  careful  considera- 
tion from  far-sighted  American  and  English  packers. 

The  meat-packing  industry  of  Argentina  has  been  spared  the 
hardships  incidental  to  the  experimental  stages  of  a  new  under- 
taking. Its  market  was  already  created  ;  finely  bred  cattle 
were  available  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  ;  it  had  but 
to  model  its  packing  houses  along  well-established  lines.  It 
was  not  until  1901,  when  the  exports  from  the  United  States 
began  to  decline  materially,  that  exports  of  Argentine  beef 
began  to  assume  importance  ;  but  since  then  the  increase 
has  been  steady  and  rapid.  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  with 
a  well-established  trade  in  frozen  mutton,  largely  supplied  the 
markets  for  this  product.  In  the  beginning  Argentina  paid 
but  little  attention  to  the  raising  of  hogs,  so  that  the  export 
of  pork  was  of  relatively  little  importance.  During  the  period 
of  1908  to  1914  a  decided  change  took  place.  The  number  of 
hogs  in  Argentina  in  1914  represented  an  increase  of  1,496,994 
over  the  number  in  1908,  while  cattle  and  sheep  showed  a 
corresponding  decrease.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
special  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  pork-packing  branch  of 
the  industry.  Another  indication  of  the  future  tendency  is 
the  fact  that  the  Armour  company  in  Buenos  Aires  has  equipped 
its  new  plant  with  facilities  for  handling  1000  hogs,  in  addition 
to  the  1500  cattle  and  2500  sheep,  per  day. 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


England  has  been  the  principal  market  for  Argentine  beef, 
which  it  admitted  free  of  duty,  while  many  of  the  other 
European  countries  imposed  prohibitive  import  duties.  This 
condition  is  changing,  due  partly  to  the  war  demands  ;  Italy 
and  France  are  importing  large  quantities  of  frozen  beef  for 
their  armies,  and  the  United  States  has  opened  its  markets  to 
foreign  meat. 

With  regard  to  the  current  situation,  Messrs.  W.  Weddel  and 
Co.,  in  their  annual  report  of  1917,  give  interesting  particulars, 
which  are  worth  quoting  in  extenso  : — 

"  The  world's  export  output  of  frozen  and  chilled  beef, 
mutton  and  lamb  in  1917  is  estimated  at  965,000  tons,  as 
against  915,380  tons  in  1916,  881,075  tons  in  1915,  and  800,375 
tons  in  1914 — a  steady  rate  of  expansion  which  must  be  con- 
sidered -very  satisfactory  under  war  conditions. 

"  That  this  great  industry  has  been  maintained  on  so  large 
a  scale  throughout  the  whole  period  covered  by  the  war  speaks 
well  for  the  energy  of  suppliers,  the  efficiency  of  the  British 
Navy,  the  pluck  of  the  Mercantile  Marine,  and  the  enterprise 
of  the  Allied  Governments,  for  whom  the  handling  of  the  great 
bulk  of  these  exports  is  now  organised. 

'  The  official  weights  of  the  various  descriptions  of  frozen 
and  chilled  meat  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  in  1917, 
as  well  as  the  number  of  packages,  are  not  available,  but  those 
for  the  previous  four  years,  along  with  the  approximate  total 
import  in  1917,  were  as  follows  : — 


AUSTRALIA  . .      . . 

NEW  ZEALAND 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 
OTHER  COUNTRIES 

TOTAL 


1913 

150,666  tons 
122,234  „ 
409,211  „ 

38,146  „ 


1914 

143,853  tons 
142,700  „ 
356,936  „ 

50,938  „ 


1915 

124,572  tons 
157,901  „ 
293,909  „ 

86,543  „ 


720,257  tons    694,427  tons    662,925  tons 


AUSTRALIA 

NEW  ZEALAND 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 
OTHER  COUNTRIES     .  . 

TOTAL 


1916 

51,343  tons 
158,123     „ 
240,297     „ 

84,048     '. 


533,811  tons 


1917 


About 
550,000  tons 


Argentina  has  been  shipping  very  heavily  also  to  the  United  States  during 
the  past  two  years. 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  9 

THE  CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE 

"  Last  year,  frozen  meat  business  on  the  Continent  was 
again  of  a  special  character,  inasmuch  as  deliveries,  practi- 
cally without  exception,  were  made  under  Government  Con- 
tracts for  Army  supplies. 

"  France. — Arrivals  of  frozen  meat  were  regularly  main- 
tained at  French  ports  throughout  the  year,  so  that  the  aggre- 
gate quantity  imported  was  fully  as  important  as  during  the 
preceding  year.  Precise  figures,  however,  are  not  available. 
The  whole  import  was  utilised  for  feeding  the  Allied  Armies, 
with  the  exception  of  relatively  insignificant  quantities  which 
the  Government  at  times  allowed  to  be  delivered  to  co-opera- 
tive societies  and  municipal  shops  for  civil  consumption  in 
Paris. 

"  Partly  as  a  result  of  the  steady  importation  of  frozen 
meat,  there  was  no  further  depletion  of  the  French  herds.  On 
the  contrary,  these  are  believed  to  have  recovered  lost  ground 
during  the  past  year,  and  in  July  last  the  Census  Returns 
accounted  for  12,443,304  cattle,  10,586,594  sheep,  and  4,200,280 
pigs — totals  which  compare  favourably  with  the  figures  for 
1916.  Supplies  of  home-grown  meat  for  the  civil  population 
were  accordingly  fairly  plentiful,  and  there  was  no  question 
of  any  serious  shortage  such  as  has  been  experienced  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  fact,  during  the  autumn,  the  Army 
authorities  availed  themselves  to  a  certain  extent  of  the  extra 
supplies  that  were  being  marketed  to  create  a  temporary  re- 
serve of  frozen  meat,  so  far  as  the  cold  storage  accommodation 
would  allow.  Two  meatless  days  per  week  were  instituted 
from  March  until  September  inclusive,  after  which  period  it 
was  found  possible  to  discontinue  this  restriction. 

"Italy. — During  1917  the  quantity  imported  was  greater 
than  in  any  preceding  year  ;  but  the  still  increasing  demand 
exceeded  the  supply,  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  Italian  herds 
of  cattle  decreased  during  the  year,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
two  meatless  days  per  week,  instituted  in  May,  1915,  are  still 
enforced. 

"  The  fleet  of  Italian-owned  refrigerated  steamers  is  now  of 
some  importance,  and  these  vessels  are  proving  of  great  utility 


10  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

in  the  importation  of  the  increased  supplies  required  by  the 
Allied  Armies  now  operating  in  Italy. 


NOTES  ON  VARIOUS  SOURCES  or  SUPPLY 

"  United  Kingdom. — On  paper,  the  herds  and  flocks  of  this 
country  were  in  a  satisfactory  position  when  the  usual  annual 
census  was  taken  on  4th  June,  1917,  by  the  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture. The  number  of  cattle  at  that  date  was  12,381,186  head, 
compared  with  12,451,540  head  in  June,  1916,  a  reduction  of 
only  0-5  per  cent  from  the  largest  total  on  record.  In  the  case 
of  sheep  the  figures  were  27,867,244  in  1917,  against  28,849,655 
in  1916 — a  reduction  of  3-4  per  cent  from  one  of  the  best  years 
of  the  present  century. 

"  Australia. — Weather  conditions  continued  to  be  highly 
favourable  in  all  parts  of  the  Commonwealth,  and  stock  gener- 
ally are  in  good  fettle.  Nevertheless,  exports  of  beef  were  con- 
siderably lighter  than  was  anticipated,  disastrous  droughts  two 
years  previously  having  materially  reduced  the  herds  in 
Queensland.  Mutton  was  shipped  in  restricted  volume  because 
so  many  graziers,  anxious  to  replenish  their  flocks,  were  ready 
to  pay  prices  for  stock  beyond  the  moderate  limits  imposed 
upon  the  freezing  works  by  their  contract  with  the  British 
Government.  The  works,  however,  have  taken  these  opera- 
tions philosophically,  realising  that  they  mean  larger  supplies 
of  freezers  for  them  in  the  near  future. 

"  The  total  export  output  of  beef,  mutton  and  lamb  in  1917 
from  all  the  Australian  works  was  118,540  tons,  of  which 
108,740  tons  were  beef,  and  only  9800  tons  mutton  and  lamb. 
This  meat  was  all  shipped  for  the  United  Kingdom,  except 
5530  tons.  In  1916  the  total  export  was  104,000  tons  ;  in  1915, 
132,090  tons  ;  and  in  1914,  171,200  tons. 

"  Storage  accommodation  had  been  much  increased  during 
1916  in  expectation  of  a  larger  export  trade,  but  this  extra 
space  was  not  required  in  1917,  partly  because  of  the  restricted 
quantities  handled,  and  partly  because  the  supply  of  tonnage 
was  comparatively  well  maintained.  Several  experiments  were 
made  in  the  cutting  of  frozen  carcases,  with  a  view  to  economi- 
cal stowage  on  board  ship  ;  and  in  the  case  of  mutton  and  lamb 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  11 

these  proved  successful  to  the  extent  of  saving  15  to  30  per 
cent  of  space.  Very  much  more  freight  space  might  have  been 
saved  by  shipping  a  larger  proportion  of  boned  beef. 

"  New  Zealand. — The  export  trade  was  carried  on  through- 
out the  year  under  the  revised  contract  made  with  the  Imperial 
Government  in  October,  1916.  Owing  to  scarcity  of  tonnage, 
shipments  were  considerably  smaller  in  1917  than  in  1916. 
Fortunately  large  additions  had  been  made  to  the  storing  capa- 
city of  all  the  leading  works  in  the  Dominion,  so  that  there  was 
no  real  difficulty  about  holding  over  stocks  in  store.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  year  the  large  shipments  made  relieved  the 
position  ;  but  the  restriction  of  business  throughout  the  year 
added  considerably  to  the  cost  of  production. 

"  Sales  of  the  surplus  supplies  of  lamb  were  made  in  London 
at  9|d.  in  January  and  at  lOd.  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year,  but  the  total  quantity  distributed  through  the  usual 
trade  channels  was  quite  inadequate,  the  market  being  con- 
tinuously understocked. 

"  The  report  of  the  Commission  appointed  to  inquire  into 
the  operations  of  American  packers  in  New  Zealand  was  issued 
in  October.  It  practically  amounted  to  an  indictment  of  their 
methods  generally,  and  contained  a  strong  warning  against 
their  being  permitted  by  the  Government  to  acquire  any 
further  hold  on  the  trade  of  the  Dominion. 

"  Canada. — A  further  satisfactory  development  of  the  ex- 
port trade  from  the  Dominion  took  place  last  year,  when  ship- 
ments to  the  United  Kingdom  and  France  amounted  to  55,000 
tons,  as  compared  with  15,200  tons  in  1916,  and  6280  tons  in 
1915.  A  certain  proportion  of  the  1917  total  consisted  of 
United  States  beef  railed  to  Canadian  ports  for  shipment ; 
nevertheless,  the  purely  Canadian  trade  shows  signs  of  healthy 
expansion,  with  many  indications  of  its  becoming  a  well- 
established  industry  after  the  present  abnormal  conditions 
have  disappeared.  The  latest  live-stock  statistics,  published 
in  September  last,  support  the  view  that  the  Canadian  farmers 
are  making  strenuous  efforts  to  augment  their  meat  supplies, 
the  number  of  cattle  in  1917  being  estimated  at  7,920,940  head, 
as  against  6,594,151  head  in  1916 — a  remarkable  increase  of 
20  per  cent.  Sheep  also  increased  from  2,022,941  head  in  1916 


12  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

to  2,369,358  head  in  1917  ;  but  there  is  still  no  export  of 
mutton  from  Canada. 

"  South  Africa. — As  a  promising  new  source  of  Empire  meat 
supply,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  continues  to  gain  in  im- 
portance. The  pastoral  conditions  of  the  country  are  emi- 
nently suitable  for  beef  production  on  a  large  scale,  the  exist- 
ing herds  of  cattle  totalling  about  8,000,000  head.  Farmers 
throughout  the  Union  are  increasing  their  efforts  to  provide 
beef  of  a  quality  suitable  for  export ;  freezing  accommodation 
is  being  extended  as  rapidly  as  war  conditions  will  allow  ; 
railway  facilities  are  being  improved  ;  and  the  British  Govern- 
ment, by  providing  freight  space  and  purchasing  full  cargoes 
at  fair  prices  for  Army  requirements,  is  lending  valuable  aid 
to  the  new  industry. 

"  Exports  last  year  amounted  to  22,400  tons,  as  compared 
with  7928  tons  in  1916,  and  2324  tons  in  1915.  Of  the  1917 
total  only  about  3200  tons  came  to  England,  the  balance  being 
shipped  to  other  destinations.  The  restricted  quantities  which 
reached  the  London  market  from  time  to  time  showed  no  real 
improvement  in  quality  or  condition,  as  compared  with  arrivals 
in  1916.  In  these  respects  good  results  are  hoped  for  from  the 
Commission  which  the  Union  Government  is  reported  to  be 
sending  to  Australia  and  New  Zealand  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing the  methods  of  meat  production  and  preparation  followed 
in  those  countries.  It  should  be  realised  by  shippers  that 
although  high  prices  were  secured  in  this  market  for  the  small 
consignments  which  came  to  hand,  beef  of  the  quality  recently 
shipped  from  South  Africa  would  not  be  very  acceptable  here 
under  normal  conditions. 

"  South  America. — The  total  export  of  frozen  and  chilled 
meat  from  the  various  South  American  Republics  in  1917 
amounted  to  540,000  tons,  as  compared  with  528,500  tons  in 
1916,  and  471,250  tons  in  1915.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  all  the  exporting  countries  increased  their 
output. 

"  Argentine  Republic. — The  weather  of  1917  was  generally 
favourable  for  live-stock,  especially  in  the  Province  of  Buenos 
Aires,  which  produces  80/90  per  cent  of  the  beef  exported  ; 
the  animals  improved  greatly  in  condition,  and  were  in  plenti- 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  13 

ful  supply  throughout.  The  results  of  the  live-stock  census 
taken  in  1914  have  only  recently  been  published,  and  reveal 
a  serious  reduction  as  compared  with  the  official  c  estimates  ' 
issued  from  time  to  time.  Cattle  were  returned  at  25,866,763 
head,  and  sheep  at  43,225,452  head,  as  against  29,116,625 
cattle,  and  67,211,754  sheep  at  the  previous  census  taken  in 
1908.  These  decreases  are  somewhat  disconcerting,  but  for- 
tunately the  causes  which  provoked  them,  viz.  the  great 
droughts  of  1911,  1912  and  1913  have  disappeared  ;  and  the 
favourable  seasons  of  the  past  few  years  appear  to  have  effected 
a  quick  recovery  in  the  number  and  quality  of  the  live-stock 
of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  case  of  cattle.  This  view 
is  borne  out  by  an  official  census  taken  in  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Aires  (the  principal  centre  of  the  cattle-raising  indus- 
try) in  1916,  which  recorded  an  increase  in  cattle  of  nearly 
25  per  cent,  the  figures  being  11,336,513  head  in  1916,  as 
against  9,090,536  head  in  1914.  It  is  generally  reckoned  that 
the  number  of  cattle  in  the  Argentine  Republic  is  now  about 
29,000,000  head,  while  sheep  are  estimated  to  number  about 
55,000,000  head. 

"  The  operations  of  the  freezing  works  were  limited  by  the 
amount  of  refrigerated  tonnage  available,  and  in  some  cases 
the  work  was  interfered  with  by  strikes,  with  the  result  that 
the  year's  shipments  of  frozen  and  chilled  meat,  amounting  to 
377,430  tons,  fell  short  of  the  previous  year's  total  of  436,400 
tons  by  13-5  per  cent.  Four-fifths  of  the  exports  were  sold  to 
the  Allied  Governments  for  Army  consumption,  the  remainder 
being  reserved  for  the  civilian  trade  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

"  Pastoral  prospects  are  now  brighter  than  they  have  been 
for  several  years  past ;  and,  apart  from  any  deficiency  in  re- 
frigerated tonnage,  a  much  increased  export  in  1918  should 
be  assured.  An  export  tax,  which  comes  into  operation  as 
from  1st  January,  1918,  introduces  a  new  element  of  uncer- 
tainty into  the  market ;  but  the  tax  is  likely  to  be  borne  by 
the  seller  and  not  by  the  ultimate  buyer,  so  long  as  prices  are 
controlled  on  this  side  of  the  world. 

"  Uruguay. — The  number  of  cattle  in  1916  was  estimated  at 
7,802,000,  as  against  8,192,600  in  1908,  while  sheep  declined 
from  26,286,000  to  about  11,473,000  head.  These  decreases 


14  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

are  attributed  to  climatic  conditions,  the  severe  drought  of 
1915-16  causing  many  deaths.  Some  recovery  was,  how- 
ever, effected  last  year  as  a  result  of  the  more  favourable 
season. 

"  Shipments  from  the  two  freezing  works  at  Monte  Video 
amounted  to  72,250  tons,  as  compared  with  43,900  tons  in 
1916.  With  the  important  new  freezing  works  erected  by  the 
Morris  Beef  Co.  at  Monte  Video  in  operation,  some  further 
increase  in  exports  is  looked  for  in  1918. 

"  Brazil. — The  export  trade  from  Brazil  has  expanded  in  a 
remarkable  manner,  and  that  country  bids  fair  soon  to  become 
one  of  the  most  important  sources  of  meat  supply.  In  1915, 
the  first  year  of  trading,  the  exports  were  8000  tons  ;  in  the 
following  year  they  increased  to  33,130  tons  ;  while  last  year 
66,450  tons  of  beef  were  shipped — chiefly  to  the  Continent,  for 
the  Italian  and  French  Armies.  The  beef  is  small  and  very 
suitable  for  these  countries,  though  it  would  hardly  be  big 
enough  for  the  best  trade  in  this  market.  There  are  now  four 
freezing  establishments  in  Brazil,  with  several  others  in  course 
of  construction  or  in  contemplation  ;  and  everything  points  to 
there  being  a  further  expansion  in  exports  during  the  coming 
year.  The  number  of  cattle  in  Brazil  is  estimated  at  30,000,000 
head,  the  bulk  of  which,  however,  are  still  of  somewhat  poor 
quality. 

"  Patagonia. — The  whole  output  of  mutton  and  lamb  from 
the  Patagonian  freezing  works  in  1917  was  purchased  by  the 
British  Government.  The  quality  proved  to  be  quite  satis- 
factory. The  mutton  was  reserved  for  Army  use,  but  small 
quantities  of  lamb  were  released  from  time  to  time  for  sale  to 
the  public  through  the  usual  channels.  Shipments  during  the 
year  amounted  to  18,700  tons,  as  compared  with  11,986  tons 
in  1916,  and  7863  tons  in  1915. 

"  United  States. — The  latest  returns  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Statistics  in  January,  1918,  estimate  the 
number  of  cattle  at  present  in  that  country  at  66,830,000  head, 
an  increase  of  3,100,000  (or  4-9  per  cent)  over  the  previous 
year's  total  of  63,700,000  head,  and  18-2  per  cent  more  than 
the  low- water  mark  in  1913,  when  only  56,527,000  head  were 
recorded.  Sheep  were  returned  at  48,900,000  head,  as  com- 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  15 

pared  with  48,500,000  at  the  end  of  1916.  The  figures  in 
respect  of  cattle  indicate  that  steady  progress  is  being  made 
in  replenishing  the  herds  of  the  United  States,  which  had  suf- 
fered a  steady  and  serious  decline  for  several  years  prior  to 
the  war. 

"  Exports  of  refrigerated  meat  showed  further  expansion 
during  the  year,  and  amounted  in  aggregate  to  95,430  tons,  of 
which  56,000  tons  were  shipped  to  the  United  Kingdom,  22,350 
tons  to  the  Continent,  and  17,080  tons  railed  to  Canada  (pre- 
sumably for  shipment  to  Europe)  as  compared  with  80,940 
tons  in  1916,  of  which  41,820  tons  came  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  39,120  tons  went  to  the  Continent.  So  recently  as  in  1913 
the  total  export  was  only  437  tons. 

"  In  view  of  the  comparative  proximity  of  the  United  States 
to  this  country,  and  its  active  participation  in  the  war,  an  in- 
creased export  of  meat  may  be  expected  from  that  quarter 
during  the  coming  year. 

PKOSPECTS 

"  The  opinion  is  held  almost  universally  that  after  the  war 
there  will  be  a  scramble  amongst  all  the  big  consuming  coun- 
tries of  the  world  and  some  of  the  smaller  nations  which  have 
not  previously  been  importers  of  meat,  for  a  share  in  the  world's 
exportable  surplus.  High  prices  are  anticipated  as  a  conse- 
quence of  the  keen  competition  to  be  looked  for  under  such 
circumstances  ;  and  fears  are  freely  expressed  that  the  avail- 
able supplies  will  fall  far  short  of  the  requirements  of  a  Conti- 
nent which  for  some  years  has  been  reduced  to  very  modest 
rations  under  the  stress  of  war. 

"  The  outlook  for  supplies  is,  however,  more  than  hopeful ; 
plenty  is  almost  assured.  The  producing  countries  of  the  world 
in  Australasia,  South  America,  North  America  and  also  South 
Africa  are  being  favoured  with  good  seasons  as  a  rule,  they  are 
all  well  supplied  with  refrigerating  plant,  and  stock  is  nowhere 
scarce.  The  only  problem  remaining  to  be  solved  is  transport, 
and  even  that  is  not  by  any  means  unsatisfactory.  The  ton- 
nage of  refrigerated  steamers  now  in  existence  under  the  British 
flag  is  as  large  as  at  the  outbreak  of  war  ;  and  new  shipping 
lines  have  been  started  in  France  and  Italy  which  bring  the 


16  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

world's  aggregate  of  refrigerated  tonnage  into  an  exceptionally 
strong  position.  If  only  the  available  means  of  transport  be 
utilised  to  their  full  capacity  for  this  their  main  purpose,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  but  that  the  most  pressing  prospective 
demands  will  not  go  unsatisfied  for  want  of  the  meat  nor  for 
lack  of  ships  to  bring  it  to  Europe." 


CHAMPION  HEREFORD  HEIFER,  CLIVE  IRIS  SRD,  ENGLISH 
ROYAL  SHOW.     EXHIBITED  BY  MR.  F.  BIBBY 

The  following  statistical  tables  are  herewith  produced  from 
Messrs.  Weddel  and  Co.'s  Annual  Review. 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


17 


I. — Table  showing  the  quantity  of  Frozen  Mutton  and  Lamb 
(in  carcases)  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom  since  the  trade 
commenced. 


Year. 

Australia. 

New 
Zealand. 

South 
America. 

Other 
Countries. 

Totals. 

1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 

400 
17,275 
57,256 
63,733 
111,745 
95,051 

8,839 
120,893 
412,349 
492,269 

17,165 
108,823 
190,571 

— 

4000/cs. 
17,275    , 
66,095    , 
201,791    , 
632,917    , 
777,891    , 

1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 

66,960 
88,811 
112,214 
86,547 
207,984  ' 

655,888 
766,417 
939,231 
1,068,286 
1,533,393 

434,699 
641,866 
924,003 
1,009,936 
1,196,531 

30,OOOF 
45,552F 

10,168F 

1,187,547  „ 
1,542,646  „ 
1,975,448  „ 
2,164,769  „ 
2,948,076  „ 

1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 

334,684 
504,738 
636,917 
939,360 
1,005,503 

1,894,105 
1,539,605 
1,857,598 
1,958,259 
2,412,331 

1,111,137 
1,247,861 
1,373,723 
1,414,815 
1,615,795 

18,897F 
17,818F 
16,425r 
ll,675r 
19,438F 

3,358,823  „ 
3,310,022  „ 
3,884,663  „ 
4,324,109  „ 
5,053,067  „ 

1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 

1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 

1,643,243 
1,407.417 
1,248,653 
1,204,601 
943,924 

2,211,895 
2,703,845 
2,784,101 
3,250.100 
3,157,060 

1,792  280 
2,121,471 
2,397,337 
2,414,718 
2,332,837 

— 

5,647,418  , 
6,232,733  „ 
6,430,091  „ 
6,869,419  „ 
6,433,821  ?, 

1,226,558 
724,297 
478,037 
450,323 
1,368,438 

1,732,328 
2,337,931 
1,831,246 

2,678,838 
4,219,808 

3,234,119 
3,668,061 
4,583,760 
3,885,231 
3,704,566 

2,634,105 
2,827,496 
3,118,437 
2,937,701 
3,203,210 

—  us 

NA 

7,094,782  „ 
7,219,854  „ 
8,180,234  „ 
7,273,255  „ 

8,276,214  „ 

1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 

1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 

4,148,288 
4,797,367 
4,234,158 
5,035,103 
5,407,474 

2,919,276 
3,015,229 
3,586,014 
3,353,211 
3,353,762 

—  NO 

8,799,892  „ 
10,150,527  „ 
9,651,418  „ 
11,067,152   „ 
12,981,044   „ 

3,612,279 
2,883,479 
4,442,517 
3,722,830 
3,582,911 

.     5,222,495 
5,495,291 
5,673,624 
6,181,184 
6,494,197 

4,125,609 
3,630,395 

2,820,024 
2,884,825 
2,111,596 

2,657 

12,960,383  „ 
12,009,165  „ 
12,936,165  „ 
12,788,839  „ 
12,191,361   „ 

1916 
1917 
1918 

671,888 
1,196,140 

38,578 

5,407,222 

2,873,878 
2,830,712 

2,311,451 
1,748,750 
1,601,107 

82,175 
19,227 
459 

8,472,736  „ 
5,837,995  „ 
4,470,856  „ 

Totals 

47.975,442 

112,643,194 

74,527,766 

274,491 

235,420,893  „ 

F  —  Falkland  Islands,     u  s  —  United  States  additional  49,924  (chilled). 
N  A  —  North  America  additional  53,577  (chilled).    N  —  Natal  additional  189. 
o  —  Orange  River  Colony  additional  40. 

18 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


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THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE  21 


TRADE  AND  EMPIRE 

There  has  been  issued  recently  by  Messrs.  W.  Weddel  &  Co. 
a  valuable  "  Memorandum  on  the  Imported  Meat  Trade 
(frozen  and  refrigerated)  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with  Sug- 
gestions for  Fostering  Production  within  the  Empire."  This 
communication  fixes  very  pointedly  upon  the  extent  and 
dangers  of  foreign  penetration.  It  goes  so  far  "as  to 
state  that  the  powerful  group  of  American  operators  in 
the  British  import  trade  have  secured  a  stronger  position, 
while  their  British  competitors  have  become  relatively  less 
strong,  largely  owing  to  the  action  of  the  British  Government. 
The  following  have  been  the  main  factors  in  producing  that 
result,  viz.  : — 

(a)  Placing  a  large  proportion  of  the  orders  for  army  re- 
quirements in  the  hands  of  these  American  opera- 
tors ; 

(6)  Commandeering  and  controlling  Australian  and  New 
Zealand  supplies,  which  formed  the  backbone  of  the 
British  traders'  business  ; 

(c)  Permitting  South  American  houses,  chiefly  American, 

to  import  considerable  quantities  of  frozen  meat  for 
civil  use,  while  preventing  New  Zealand  and  Aus- 
tralian houses  from  doing  the  same  thing  ;  and 

(d)  (thereby)  Destroying  the  productive  and  distributing 

organisations  of  British  firms,  while  building  up 
those  of  their  American  competitors. 

In  1913  the  world's  output  of  frozen  and  refrigerated  meat 
was  40  per  cent  British  and  60  per  cent  foreign.  In  1916  it 
was  31  per  cent  British  and  69  per  cent  foreign. 

Constructive  policy  is,  of  course,  necessary  for  the  future, 
and  the  memorandum  devotes  some  space  to  recommenda- 
tions for  avoiding  the  dangers  of  foreign  penetration  in  this 
trade,  and  making  the  Empire  self-supporting.  It  asks  a  ques- 
tion :  "  Can  Australasia,  Canada,  and  South  Africa  make  up 
the  deficiency  from  their  large  but  not  fully  developed  stocks  ?" 


22  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

That  is  the  crucial  question.  The  reply  must  be  :  "  Not  at 
present,  but  we  believe  that  in  a  few  yean:'  time,  with  proper 
encouragement  from  the  Home  and  Overseas  Governments 
concerned,  they  could." 

As  to  remedies,  we  read  :  "  First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to 
interest  the  Home  Government  sufficiently  to  elicit  from  them 
some  definite  guarantee  against  the  most  favoured  treatment, 
active  or  passive,  being  accorded  to  foreign  producers,  also  a 


SHORTHORN  Cow  AND  BULL  CALF,  ROYAL  FARM,  WINDSOR,  ENGLAND 

definite   declaration  in  favour   of   encouraging   Empire   pro- 
duction. 

"  Meat  required  for  feeding  our  troops,  both  now  and  in 
time  of  peace,  should  be  drawn,  firstly,  from  Empire  sources 
so  far  as  these  will  permit  ;  secondly,  from  British  suppliers 
of  foreign-grown  meat  ;  and  only  lastly  from  foreign  suppliers. 
Even  if  relatively  full  prices  were  paid  for  such  Empire  supplies 
as  might  be  available  for  this  purpose,  no  commercial  treaties 
would  appear  to  be  violated,  while  the  production  would  be 
fostered  in  the  Dominions,  The  remainder  of  the  meat  pro- 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE  23 

duced  there  would  come  forward,  as  hitherto,  for  sale  in  the 
open  market  on  shippers'  account. 

"  If  the  Government  were  in  this  way  to  guarantee  these 
army  orders  at  fair  prices  fixed  up  year  by  year  for  five  or 
seven  years  (or  so  long  as  the  grain  guarantees  continue)  fresh 
supplies  of  meat  to  compensate  for  the  prospective  Home 
shortage  would  doubtless  be  assured  by  the  end  of  that 
period. 

'  The  Empire-grown  meat  taken  over  by  the  Government 
would  be  limited  to  the  army's  requirements,  so  that  in  normal 
times  the  total  army  supply  would  be  produced  within  the 
Empire,  and  the  lines  laid  down  for  a  speedy  expansion  of 
these  supplies  in  any  sudden  emergency. 

"  The  proposal  might  involve  the  making  of  special  contract 
arrangements  between  the  British  Government  and  the  Govern- 
ments of  the  overseas  Dominions,  each  colonial  Government 
taking  steps  to  distribute  its  orders  amongst  the  various  estab- 
lishments within  its  territory,  and  to  regulate  and  encourage 
the  production  of  meat  suitable  for  these  contracts.  The  pre- 
servation of  freedom  of  action  in  respect  of  all  meat  not  included 
in  such  army  contract  would  be  an  essential  part  of  the  scheme, 
if  it  is  to  appeal  to  British  independence  of  character." 

Complementary  measures  include  : — 

(a)  Systematised  improvement  in  the  quality  of  stock  in 
accordance  with  the  needs  of  the  British  and  other 
European  markets  ; 

(6)  Combination  between  producers  and  shippers,  enabling 
long  contracts  to  be  entered  into  ; 

(c)  Standardised  grading  ; 

(d)  Regularity  of  sailings  ; 

(e)  Concentration  in  selling  ; 

(/)  Pooling  of  shipping,  financing,  and  insuring  facilities. 

The  memorandum  concludes  that  the  presence  of  the 
American  Trust  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand  is  a  source  of 


24  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

weakness  in  any  effort  to  establish  the  trade  on  Empire  lines 
by  private  enterprise. 

"  The  problems  raised  thereby  can  only  be  dealt  with  by 
each  overseas  State  separately,  but  no  satisfactory  start  can 
be  made  in  that  direction  until  the  principle  is  definitely 
adopted  by  Great  Britain,  that  foreign  trading  in  the  food  of 
her  people  must  be  eliminated  in  favour  of  British  trading." 


CHAMPION  HEREFORD  BULL,  GAINSBOROUGH,  ENGLISH 
ROYAL  SHOW,  1915.     EXHIBITED  BY  MR.  S.  ROBINSON 


AUSTKALIA 

AT  the  last  census  in  Australia  there  were  10,500,000  cattle 
and  80,000,000  sheep,  and  in  1891  there  were  11,522,000  cattle 
and  103,260,000  sheep,  but  droughts,  tick,  red  water,  and 
harassing  legislation  have  brought  the  numbers  down  to  the 
lower  level.  It  may  be  taken,  however,  for  granted  that, 
given  the  State  politicians  do  not  persist  in  their  antagonism 
to  the  stock-owners,  the  number  of  stock  in  Australia  can  easily 
be  increased  very  largely.  In  the  case  of  cattle  this  is  particu- 
larly so,  because  not  many  men  are  required  to  handle  a  cattle 
station,  whereas  the  amount  of  labour  required  on  a  sheep 
property  is  large. 

^Australia  is  a  vast  country,  with  magnificent  grasses  for  p 
stock,  and,  with  a  good  supply  of  labour,  would  be  hard  to  beat 
by  any  country  in  the  world.  The  State  ownership  of  railways 
is  a  drawback,  however,  as  under  this  system,  unless  continual 
British  loans  are  forthcoming,  railway  enterprise  in  opening 
up  new  country  is  stagnant.  Again,  democratic  governments 
never  think  of  constructing  railways  unless  there  are  sufficient 
votes  along  the  proposed  line  to  encourage  them  to  do  so.  Tis 
votes  that  count  all  the  time  under  State  ownership  of  railways. 
Nearly  £500,000  per  annum  is  given  the  highly  paid  railway 
and  tramway  employees  in  New  South  Wales  alone  in  the  shape 
of  free  passes  and  concessions.  This  is  passed  on  to  the  pro- 
ducer in  higher  freights.  Another  drawback  is  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  get  Government  employees  to  take  care  of  live- 
stock, and  they  consequently  depreciate  enormously  between 
their  fattening  grounds  and  the  meat  works  on  the  sea-board. 
The  Australian  railways  are  years  behind  the  times  in  the 
matter  of  refrigerated  wagons,  and  to  all  appearance  nothing 
will  wake  them  to  the  necessity  of  equipping  their  systems 
with  means  of  bringing  meat  down  to  the  sea-board  dead  rather 
than  alive,  also  to  the  importance  of  making  country  life  more 

27 


28 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


pleasant  by  transferring  perishable  produce  to  the  outback 
towns  in  refrigerated  wagons  as  is  done  in  Canada  and 
America. 

With  the  continued  improvements  in  refrigerating  machinery 
the  chances  of  the  chilled  beef  trade  between  Australia  and  the 
United  Kingdom  become  more  promising. 

The  chilled  beef  industry  stimulates  the  bringing  to  a  high 
degree  of  excellence  the  cattle  of  the  country  from  which  the 


MR.  JOHN  MCMASTER'S  STUD  SHORTHORN  Cow,  GOLDEN  DUCHESS-, 
BINNIA  DOWNS,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES 

shipments  are  made,  for  the  primest  beef  is  required  for  chilled 
exports.  .Chilled  beef  enters  a  high-class  retail  trade,  where 
the  demand  is  more  regular  and  prices  higher  than  for  frozen 
beef.  The  chilling  process  does  far  more  justice  to  good  meat 
than  does  freezing,  and  it  is  difficult  to  avoid  holding  the  view 
that  the  great  bulk  of  the  supplies  of  refrigerated  beef  for 
Great  Britain  in  the  future  will  ultimately  be  carried  at  a 
chilling  temperature. 

The  largest  amount  of  frozen  meat  ever  sent  away  from 
Australia  was  in  1914-15.     In  that  year  five  million  carcases 


AUSTRALIA  f  31 

of  mutton  and  lamb  and  over  two  million  quarters  of  beef 
were  exported  ;  it  will  be  many  years  before  that  record  is 
beaten. 

The  constantly  recurring  labour  troubles  are  alone  sufficient 
to  handicap  the  industry.  The  big  meat  works  of  Queensland, 
whence  almost  all  the  beef  is  exported,  are  continually 
brought  to  a  standstill  by  the  despicable  behaviour  of  the 
unionists — I  was  going  to  say  "  the  workers,"  but  that  is  a 


RESERVE  CHAMPION  ABERDEEN  ANGUS  Cow,  SCOTTISH  QUEEN,  BRISBANE 

SHOW,  QUEENSLAND 
Exhibited  by  Mr.  G.  C.  Clark 

misnomer,  they  are  not  workers,  and  have  little  or  no  inten- 
tion of  being  so.  Backed  up  in  all  their  demands  by  the  present 
Government  in  that  State,  they  imagine  they  have  only  to  go 
far  enough  and  the  private  companies  will  drop  out  and  the 
Government  will  take  over  the  works.  Then  when  that  comes 
about  they  believe  they  can  loaf  as  much  as  they  like,  receive 
fictitious  wages,  and  the  loss  will  be  made  good  by  taxation 
and  British  loans.  Such  is  the  pitiable  condition  to-day  of 
one  of  the  finest  and  largest  sources  of  a  big  beef  supply, 
and,  therefore,  one  is  not  at  all  sanguine  of  any  immediate  big 


32  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

development  from  Queensland  in  the  beef  line.  A  normal 
export  of  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  million  quarters  may 
be  looked  for  at  present  and  in  the  near  future,  but  a  big 
change  in  "  Labour's  "  attitude  must  take  place  before  any 
large  increase  can  be  expected.  Queensland  cattle  kill  at 
about  an  average  of  640  Ibs.  dead  weight  at  the  meat 
works. 

Great  developments  should  take  place  in  Western  Australia 
in  regard  to  cattle  supply.  There  is  an  enormous  area  of  ex- 
cellent cattle  country,  and  with  freezing  works  at  Wyndham 
and  other  ports,  a  big  supply  of  frozen  beef  may  be  depended 
upon.  This  supply  will  be  a  fortnight  nearer  the  world's 
markets  than  that  of  the  Eastern  sea-board,  and  necessarily 
the  freight  should  be  lower.  The  whole  issue  depends  on  the 
Xjoyernment ;  with  just  legislation,  security  of  tenure,  and 
decent  labour  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  Western  Australia 
rivalling,  and  even  beating,  Queensland  in  her  beef  output. 
As  regards  mutton — sheep  and  lambs — everything  points  to  a 
larger  supply  than  formerly  throughout  the  Commonwealth. 
Cross  breeding  has  been  gone  into  very  extensively,  and  many 
men  are  now  breeding  for  export  sheep  and  lambs.  Under 
decent  conditions  and  with  a  Government  with  brains  suffi- 
cient to  encourage  the  men  on  the  land  to  increase  and  multi- 
ply their  flocks  and  herds,  Australia  alone  should  easily  be 
able  to  supply  Great  Britain  with  all  the  mutton  she  may  re- 
quire. Recently  the  Hon.  D.  J.  Gordon,  of  Adelaide,  read  a 
paper  before  an'  Interstate  conference  of  meat  exporters  in 
Sydney  on  the  Live-Stock  Industry  of  Australia.  This  was 
reprinted  in  The  Pastoral  Review,  and  as  it  gives  the  views  of 
breeders,  I  reproduce  it  here  with  confidence  : — 

CAUSES  OF  SHORTAGE  IN  LIVE-STOCK  AND   SUGGESTED 

REMEDIES 

There  have  been  many  contributory  factors  to  the  want  of 
vitality  in  Australia's  leading  industry,  and  the  serious  shortage 
in  live-stock  as  disclosed  in  the  latest  statistics.  With  a  view 
to  investigating  the  causes  I  sent  circulars  to  a  number  of 
leading  stock-owners,  and  asked  for  replies  to  the  following 


~! 


, 


AUSTRALIA  35 

questions.  The  summary  of  the  replies  received  is  of  special 
importance,  since  it  represents  the  views  expressed  by  men  of 
experience  who  are  in  the  business  : — 

1.  What  are  the  main  causes  of  the  shortage  of  sheep  and 
cattle  in  Australia  ? 

Droughts  at  intervals,  and  the  exceptionally  bad  season  of 
1914.  General  want  of  confidence  in  trend  of  legislation,  over- 
stocking, and  destruction  of  natural  herbage.  Breaking  up 
large  estates  and  dispersal  of  flocks  and  herds — often  stud 
sheep  and  cattle.  Failure  of  small  settlers  to  keep  stock. 
Inadequate  transport  facilities,  and  neglect  of  State-owned 
railway  managers  to  provide  facilities  similar  to  Argentina, 
United  States,  and  Canada.  Big  saving  of  stock  would  be 
possible  even  in  worst  droughts  if  railways  were  adequate  and 
the  management  responsive.  Increasing  burdens  of  taxation 
and  general  political  vendetta  against  live-stock  industry. 
Demands  of  labour  unions  and  harassing  awards,  causing  in- 
crease in  cost  of  production  and  difficulty  of  working  runs. 
Rabbits  and  wild  dogs. 

(The  consensus  of  opinion  puts  drought  first,  then  dispersal 
of  big  flocks  to  meet  demand  of  closer  settlement,  third,  legis- 
lation and  taxation,  and  then  insufficient  railway  systems.) 

2.  What  are  the  best  methods  to  adopt  to  build  up  the  flocks 
and  herds  ? 

A  political  truce  and  fair  treatment  to  stock-owners.  Link 
up  railway  systems  and  improve  same.  Abolish  breaks  of 
gauge  and  make  the  railways  responsible  for  damage  to  stock. 
Educate  small  settlers  to  keep  sheep  and  cattle.  Encourage 
stud  breeders.  Remove  embargoes  and  abolish  restrictive 
legislation,  which  prevents  stock  passing  from  State  to  State. 
Cultivate  grasses  and  fodder  crops  for  stock  and  carry  reserve 
supplies  against  dry  seasons.  Offer  every  inducement  to  secure 
occupation  of  outside  country.  Systematic  campaign  against 
rabbits  and  wild  dogs.  Security  of  tenure.  Increased  water 
supplies. 

3.  Is  it  possible  to  increase  the  live-stock  beyond  the  highest 
point  yet  reached  in  Australia,  and  if  so,  how  ? 

Not  unless  outside  country  and  central  and  north  Australia 
can  be  opened  up  by  railways  and  stocked.  By  farmers  carry- 


36  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

ing  small  flocks  and  a  few  head  of  cattle.  One  correspondent 
advocates  a  "  campaign  of  education  "  amongst  small  settlers. 
(Several  authorities  doubt  if  the  highest  water-mark  will  be 
reached  for  very  many  years  owing  to  the  dispersal  of  big  flocks 
and  herds  ;  others  state  that  irrigated  lands  along  the  Murray 
and  higher  prices  for  meat  will  encourage  breeding  up.) 

4.  In  what  direction  do  you  look  for  an  expansion  of  the 
pastoral  industry  ? 

Several  correspondents  take  the  view  that  there  is  little 
prospect  of  expansion  in  face  of  growing  taxation,  industrial 
unrest,  rising  wages,  and  inefficient  labour.  Others  state  that 
any  growth  will  depend  upon  successful  occupation  of  central 
and  northern  Australia,  growth  of  confidence,  and  removal  of 
restrictions.  If  meat  and  wool  prices  remain  relatively  high 
they  may  restore  vitality  to  a  languishing  industry.  One  corre- 
spondent says  :  "  The  industry  requires  large  reserves  of  capi- 
tal, and  men  who  can  command  capital  are  being  driven  out 
of  the  business."  Increased  liberal  land  laws  are  advocated. 

5.  Can  the  sheep  and  cattle  of  Australia  be  improved  on  the 
meat  side,  and  if  so,  how  ? 

Introduction  of  better  bulls  from  England,  especially  on 
"  early  maturing  side,"  is  strongly  advocated.  Most  corre- 
spondents contrast  the  prices  paid  for  stud  stock  in  England 
by  breeders  in  the  Argentine  Republic  with  the  lack  of  enter- 
prise on  the  part  of  Australians  in  keeping  up  a  standard. 

(There  is  a  consensus  of  opinion  that  both  cattle  and  sheep 
can  be  improved  on  the  meat  side  with  all-round  advantage. 
For  export  meat  trade  cross-breeding  of  sheep  is  recommended.) 

6.  What  improvements  do  you  recommend  in  the  carriage 
of  live-stock  on  the  railways  ? 

Railway  management  in  almost  all  the  States  is  strongly 
condemned.  One  well-informed  correspondent,  with  excep- 
tional experience,  says  :  "  The  whole  system  of  carriage  of 
stock  on  railways  requires  remodelling.  State  railways  should 
be  made  '  Common  Carriers,'  and  be  responsible.  An  expert 
should  be  imported  on  behalf  of  all  the  States — preferably 
from  Argentina — to  revise  the  whole  system.  Stock  should 
be  watered  on  long-distance  runs,  and  stock  trains  should  run 
to  schedule  time."  Also,  votes  at  General  Elections  should  not 


AUSTEALIA  37 

be  allowed  railway  employees.  They  should  elect  their  own 
member  to  represent  them.  Other  suggestions  are  :  Quicker 
transit,  better  trucks  and  loading,  more  care  by  engine  drivers, 
resting  depots  on  long  journeys  for  water  and  feed,  stock  trains 
fitted  with  air  brakes. 

7.  Can  the  pastoral  industry  be  encouraged  by  better  land 
laws  ;  if  so,  in  what  direction  ? 

Security  of  tenure  and  full  compensation  for  improvements. 
Liberal  land  laws  and  reduction  of  taxation  for  purely  stock 
country,  and  exemption  from  Federal  land  tax  of  outside 
leases. 

8.  Do  you  look  for  increase  in  sheep  and  cattle  from  Murray 
River  reclaimed  lands,  and  from  closer  settlement  areas  ? 

Only  to  limited  extent  unless  prices  warrant  intense  culture 
and  hand  feeding. 

9.  Do  the  cattle  and  sheep  of  Australia  compare  favourably 
on  the  meat  side  with  the  live-stock  of  other  meat-exporting 
countries  ? 

One  correspondent  who  has  visited  Argentina  writes  :  "  The 
cattle  do  not  compare  favourably.  The  average  dead  weight 
beast  from  Queensland  is  much  less  than  the  Argentine  aver- 
age." A  gentleman  of  many  years'  practical  experience  in  the 
meat  trade  of  South  America  says  :  "  Argentine  breeders  are 
always  importing  stud  stock  to  keep  up  the  standard.  There 
is  room  for  improvement  in  Australian  cattle  and  better 
methods  of  droving — less  stockwhip  and  rough  handling — and 
better  methods  of  dressing  are  essential  in  respect  to  mutton 
and  beef  intended  for  export.  Australian  sheep  are  splendid, 
especially  Merinos,  on  the  wool  side,  but  bigger  carcases  are 
needed  for  export." 

The  following  diagrams  show  in  graph  form  the  rise  and 
fall  of  meat  production  in  Australia  during  the  last  half 
century : — 


38 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


No.  IN 
MILLIONS 


CATTLE 
1860  '65   70  75    '80  '85    '00   '95  1900  '05   '10    '15    '16    '17  '18 


No.  IN 
MILLIONS 

SHEEP 

1860  '65    70    75   '80   '85    '90    '95  1900  '05    '10   '15    '16    '17    '18 

90 
80 
70 
60 
50 
40 
30 
20 

f- 

A 

/ 

s\ 

/ 

\ 

s 

1 

V 

.4 

\ 

x 

r 

J 

V 

-*^ 

X 

s 

/ 

/ 

/ 

^ 

y 

AUSTRALIA  39 

A  leading  breeder  with  experience  of  the  "  inside  "  and 
"  outside  "  country,  who  is  specially  competent  to  take  a 
broad  view  of  the  general  situation,  writes  :  "  After  looking 
into  your  questions  I  think  it  all  comes  back  to  the  lack  of 
confidence  that  has  been  firmly  established  in  the  minds  of 
those  who  hold  land  of  any  description  that  the  trend  of  legis- 
lation is  to  '  kill '  rather  than  foster  the  development  of  the 
pastoral  industry.  We  are  prepared  to  face  droughts,  dingoes, 
and  rabbits,  as  we  know  something  about  them,  and  how 
best  to  fight  them,  and  we  have  confidence  in  ourselves, 
but  they  are  as  nothing  compared  with  the  uncertainty 
of  land  legislation.  The  man  with  capital  who  would  be 
prepared  to  face  all  the  risks  and  develop  and  improve 
his  holding  stands  down  and  gives  v  ay  to  the  speculator, 
who  only  holds  to  get  out  at  the  first  favourable  opportunity. 
This  class  of  pastoralist  is  no  good  for  developing  country  or 
improving  stock.  The  State  could  do  better  without  him. 
The  practical  man  who  has  the  means  looks  to  the  future,  and 
providing  he  could  feel  confident  of  being  undisturbed  by  his 
landlord,  would  be  ready  to  tackle  all  the  other  odds  against 
him.  Rabbits,  of  course,  have  killed  much  or  nearly  all  the 
drought-resisting  stock  fodders  or  plants,  and  a  great  portion 
of  southern  pastoral 'Australia  will  never  again  be  capable  of 
carrying  the  same  quantity  of  stock.  There  is  much  of  Aus- 
tralia that  can  be  settled  and  developed,  but  legislation  must 
restore  confidence,  which  has  been  so  sadly  shaken  that  I 
question  whether  we  will  ever  again  see  private  enterprise  as 
enthusiastic  as  in  the  past.  Certainly  not  till  railways  are 
extended,  with  branch  feeders,  will  the  out-back  country  be 
taken  up  and  settled.  The  stud-breeder  in  the  inside  country  >i 
and  the  pastoralist  out-back  can  successfully  fight  and  with- 
stand droughts  and  keep  vermin  within  bounds,  but  the  legis- 
lator can  kill  the  freeholder  and  the  Crown  lessee  by  a  stroke 
of  the  legislative  pen.  And  he  is  doing  it,  and  that  spells 
national  disaster." 


40  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 


CLIMATIC  CONTROL  OF  PRODUCTION 

Mr.  Griffith  Taylor,  B.Sc.,  B.E.  (Physiographer  to  the  Com- 
monwealth Meteorological  Bureau),  recently  issued  a  pamphlet 
under  the  title  "  The  Climatic  Control  of  Australian  Produc- 
tion." He  has  made  "  an  attempt  to  gauge  the  potential 
wealth  of  the  Commonwealth,"  and  certainly  that  is  one  of 
the  first  steps  to  take  to  promote  rural  expansion. 

It  would  appear  from  Mr.  Taylor's  scientific  deductions  that 
something  more  than  natural  climatic  conditions  is  required  to 
enable  the  Commonwealth  to  carry  with  safety  an  increasing 
number  of  cattle  and  sheep.  The  locking  of  the  rivers,  the 
extension  of  irrigation,  a  greater  use  of  artesian  water  supplies, 
the  cultivation  of  grasses  and  fodder  crops  will  in  time  increase 
the  carrying  capacity  of  the  country.  In  this  connection  it  is 
worthy  of  note  that  during  the  period  that  New  Zealand  was 
developing  its  meat  export  trade,  and  the  population  was 
growing,  live-stock  steadily  increased  in  numbers.  Up  to  the 
present  time  Australian  live-stock  owners  have  given  little 
attention  to  the  growing  of  feed  supplies,  while  stall  feeding  in 
shelter  sheds,  though  shown  by  experiments  to  be  profitable, 
is  not  practised  to  any  appreciable  extent,  for  the  reason  that 
decent  labour  which  will  give  a  fair  day's  work  for  a  fair  day's 
wage  is  unprocurable.  It  was  Charles  Dickens  who  once 
remarked  at  an  agricultural  dinner  that  "  the  field  which  paid 
uhe  farmer  best  to  cultivate  was  the  one  within  the  ring  fence 
of  his  own  skull."  That  statement  contains  a  more  important 
truth  to-day  than  it  did  in  the  time  of  the  great  novelist. 
Science  is  conspicuously  aiding  the  tiller  of  the  soil  who  places 
himself  in  a  position  to  be  assisted.  Improved  ocean  transit 
has  brought  the  producer  in  Australia  and  the  consumer  in 
the  centres  of  population  in  Europe  closer  together,  and  the 
refrigerating  chamber  is  opening  up  almost  unlimited  oppor- 
tunities for  the  expansion  of  trade.  The  remarkable  success 
which  attended  experiments  made  in  New  Zealand  in  the 
eighties  in  the  shipment  to  England  of  frozen  meat  compelled 
Australian  breeders  to  look  askance  at  the  "  boiling -down  " 
works  which  were  employed  for  the  purpose  of  dealing  with 


I 


AUSTRALIA 


43 


surplus  stock  in  times  of  plenty,  and  relieving  the  pressure 
when  droughts  came.  With  a  threatened  scarcity  of  feed  and 
water  before  them,  pastoralists  were  sometimes  forced  to  sac- 
rifice their  stock  in  a  flooded  market.  Sheep  used  to  be  killed 
for  the  sake  of  the  skins,  and  the  carcases  either  left  to 
rot  on  the  ground  or  were  sold  for  a  few  pence  per  head  to  the 
owner  of  the  nearest  boiling-down  works  and  turned  into 


CHAMPION  ABERDEEN  ANGUS  BULL,  HEATHER  DUKE,  AT 
BRISBANE  SHOW,  Q:,  1918 

Exhibited  by  Mr.  J.  Mclntosh 

tallow.  The  advent  of  the  freezing  process  and  the  refrigerat- 
ing chamber  in  steamers  altered  all  this,  and  the  day  of  the 
"  boiling -down  "  works  passed  away  never  to  return. 


RECONSTRUCTION  AND  EXPANSION 

A  critical  period  has  been  reached  in  the  business  of  raising 
live-stock  and  in  the  export  of  meat,  and  the  vital  question  is  : 
How  can  the  drift  be  checked  and  the  industry  placed  upon  a 
firm  foundation  ?  The  foregoing  review  and  opinions  ex- 
pressed by  practical  men  show  clearly  enough  that  while 
climatic  conditions  impose  distinct  limitations,  there  are  other 


44  THE    WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 

explanations  for  the  stagnation  in  the  industry  and  the  want 
of  confidence  which  is  causing  owners  to  curtail  operations, 
and  preventing  others  from  taking  up  country  and  stocking  it. 
The  pastoral  occupation  of  the  outside  country  is  of  funda- 
mental importance  to  Australia.  It  is  the  only  way  to  develop 
natural  resources,  people  an  empty  continent,  keep  the  fac- 
tories of  the  Commonwealth  open,  and  provide  employment, 
while  checking  the  fatal  preponderance  of  the  metropolitan 


RESERVE  CHAMPION  HEREFORD  BULL,  SIR  HAMILTON, 

BRISBANE  SHOW,  Q.,  1918 
.  Exhibited  by  Mrs.  Lumley  Hill 

population.  In  no  other  way  can  waste  places  be  made  produc- 
tive. By  increased  production  alone  will  it  be  possible  to  meet 
growing  national  and  private  obligations.  Australian  manu- 
facturers depend  wholly  on  home  markets,  and  are  not  likely 
to  become  exporters.  They  must  look  to  the  stock-owner, 
grain-grower,  and  dairyman  for  orders,  and  similarly  the  earn- 
ing power  of  State-owned  railways  and  State -controlled  har- 
bours and  ports  will  fluctuate  with  the  varying  fortunes  of  the 
primary  producers. 

Is  it  too  much,  then,  to  ask  that  the  Parliaments  of  the  Com- 
monwealth and  States  shall  call  a  halt  to  their  more  or  less 


^      (E 


II 


K     O 

II 


•. 

s  l 

55   ^3 

.^  o 


AUSTRALIA 


47 


relentless  pursuit  of  the  man  on  the  land,  and  that  wiser 
counsels  shall  prevail  to  the  end  that  methods  may  be  em- 
ployed to  restore  vitality  to  languishing  rural  industries  ? 
Australia  should  be  able  to  provide  a  cheap  meat  supply  for 
its  own  people,  and  build  up  a  larger  and  more  prosperous 
oversea  trade  in  wool,  meat,  skins,  and  hides,  but  before  this 
can  be  accomplished  the  growing  burden  of  taxation  must  be 
lightened  or  better  distributed,  and  the  paramount  importance 
of  the  live-stock  business  generally  recognised. 


CHAMPION  SHORTHORN  Cow,  CORNFLOWER  2ND,  BRISBANE 

SHOW,  Q.,  1918 
Exhibited  by  the  Lomaz  Pastoral  Co. 

A  serious  menace  to  which  special  attention  deserves  to  be 
drawn  is  the  dispersal  of  high-class  stud  flocks  and  herds, 
upon  which  foundation  stock-raising  has  been  built  and  must 
be  maintained.  Without  that  foundation  there  can  be  no 
substantial  growth.  On  the  contrary,  flocks  and  herds  will 
deteriorate.  Some  States  are  noted  for  a  special  type  of  sheep, 
and  it  is  from  the  pure  studs  that  drafts  are  continually  drawn 
to  maintain  the  great  wool  trade  and  the  growing  meat  export 
business.  These  "  types  "  can  only  be  produced  and  kept  to 
standard  on  good  inside  country,  but  the  imperative  demands 


48  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

of  two  departments  of  taxation — Federal  and  State — make  the 
business  of  studbreeding  a  doubtful  proposition.  Instead  of  stud 
flocks  and  herds  increasing  they  are  decreasing,  and  that  factor 
in  relation  to  Australia's  hitherto  leading  industry  can  neither 
be  disputed  nor  discounted.  It  represents  a  danger-signal. 

In  some  countries  private  railway  companies  offer  reduced 
rates  for  the  carriage  of  stud  animals  as  an  encouragement  to 
breeding  which  will  bring  business  to  the  railways.  The  State- 
owned  railways  of  Australia  charge  more  for  stud  stock — 
sometimes  as  much  as  ten  times  more  than  ordinary  rates  ! 

In  this  and  other  respects  there  is  much  that  railway  mana- 
gers could  do  to  encourage  live-stock  raising.  Owners  and 
agents  are  unanimous  that  stock  trains  should  be  fitted  with 
air  brakes  and  run  to  schedule  time,  and  that  provision  should 
be  made  for  watering  animals  on  long-distance  runs.  State 
Governments  might  well  combine  to  send  a  first-class  man 
(not  a  Government  official)  on  a  world  tour  to  inquire  into 
various  systems  of  carryingslive-stock,  or  import  an  expert  to 
revise  our  inadequate  system.  The  pastoralist  is  the  best 
customer  the  railway  departments  have,  and  it  will  pay  to 
respond  to  his  requirements  and  help  him  to  extend  his  activi- 
ties and  send  more  produce  over  the  railways. 

The  extension  of  railways  into  central  and  northern  Aus- 
tralia, the  gradual  elimination  of  varying  gauges,  conservation 
of  surface  waters,  and  the  multiplication  of  artesian  bores  are 
Governmental  activities  calling  for  prompt  attention  as  being 
among  the  means  of  giving  much-needed  vitality  to  the  live- 
stock industry.  There  is  also  a  distinct  call  for  an  educational 
campaign,  more  particularly  among  small  settlers,  concerning 
the  advantages  of  keeping  stock,  the  best  breeds  for  given 
localities,  and  the  profits  to  be  derived  from  feeding  and 
sheltering  stock.  The  Pastoral  Review  is  a  handbook  of 
practical  information  for  those  stock-owners  who  read  at  all, 
and  the  Australian  farmer  is  fortunate  to  have  such  a 
publication.  Many,  however,  do  not  read  anything  at  all, 
and  among  this  class  a  campaign  is  required.  The  various 
agricultural  departments  are  singularly  weak  on  the  stock 
side,  and  little  is  being  done  in  an  educational  way  to  conduct 
experiments  or  carry  conviction  to  the  small  stock-owner. 


AUSTRALIA  51 

Restore  confidence  among  the  men  engaged  in  the  industry, 
and  those  who  would  willingly  enter  the  business,  and  there 
will  be  no  hesitation  in  even  rivalling  the  purchases  of  breeders 
in  the  Argentine  of  high-class  stud  cattle  in  England,  and  the 
introduction  of  strains  that  will  improve  sheep  on  the  meat 
side.  It  was  the  stud-breeder  who  added  several  pounds  of 
wool  per  fleece  and  produced  a  wool  of  unequalled  quality,  and 
the  same  skill  is  available  and  waiting  to  be  utilised  on  the  meat 


RESERVE  CHAMPION  SHORTHORN  BULL,  LYNDHURST  ROYAL  PEER  HTH, 
BRISBANE  SHOW,  QUEENSLAND 

Exhibited  by  Mr.  C.  E.  McDougall 

side.  That  there  is  the  same  pioneer  spirit  of  adventure  and 
power  of  endurance  available  to  make  conquests  in  remote 
parts  of  Australia  has  been  proved  beyond  all  doubt  by  young 
Australians  in  the  great  war.  Given  the  opportunity,  they 
will  prove  worthy  sons  of  the  men  who  have  made  Australia. 
The  stuff  of  which  pioneers  were  made  is  still  with  us. 

In  the  matter  of  taxation  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  Federal 
graduated  land  and  income  tax  on  the  top  of  State  and  local 
imposts  represents  a  crushing  burden  to  those  engaged  in 
wool-growing  and  meat-raising.  Specific  cases  have  been  given 
to  me  where  two -thirds  of  income  goes  in  taxation  !  It  has 


52 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 


taken  the  whole  of  the  wool  clip  of  one  pastoralist  for  two  years 
in  succession  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  tax  collector,  and 
stock  had  to  be  sold  to  meet  working  expenses.  One  correspon- 
dent writes  :  "  Leaseholders  are  now  taxed  as  well  as  the  free- 
holders, and  the  extraordinary  assessments  put  on  leaseholds 
is  reducing  their  values  enormously.  One  leasehold  of  248 
miles,  120  miles  from  a  railway,  Was  assessed  at  the  commence- 
ment of  a  42  years'  lease  at  £10,000  unimproved  value.  It 


STUD  SHORTHORN  BULL  BARITONE,  CHAMPION  AT  SYDNEY  ROYAL  SHOW,  1918 

Purchased  for  1700  guineas  by  Mr.  John  McMaster,  Binnia  Downs, 
New  South  Wales 

should  not  have  been  worth  £1000  ;  yet  with  29  years  to  run 
it  has  been  assessed  at  £7790.  Four  years  ago  £12,000  was 
given  for  it,  with  8000  sheep  and  nearly  £5000  of  improvements; 
£3000  worth  more  of  improvements  were  put  on  before  the 
assessment.  Such  assessments  will  make  men  hesitate  to  take 
up  leaseholds.  Men  will  take  big  risks  for  fair  dividends,  but 
when  they  are  to  be  taxed  heavily  on  returns  made  in  good 
years,  and  get  no  allowance  in  bad  years,  they  are  not  likely  to 
put  their  money  into  industries  which  are  so  viciously  attacked 
by  our  Legislatures." 

There  is  not  only  the  problem  of  reconstruction  to  be  faced, 


AUSTRALIA  53 

but  the  greater  problem  of  the  expansion  of  the  live-stock 
industry.  The  practical  question  is  how  best  to  meet  this 
national  obligation.  It  is  not  a  political  question — certainly 
not  a  party  one,  since  every  section  of  the  community  will  be 
vitally  affected  by  the  fluctuating  fortunes  of  rural  producers. 
It  is  an  economic  problem  of  first-class  importance — a  national 
enterprise  which  transcends  all  political  and  other  considera- 
tions. 

There  are  at  least  eight  essentials  before  the  live-stock  in- 
dustry of  Australia  can  be  reconstructed  and  vigorous  growth 


made  possible  :  (1)  A  better  appreciation  on  the  part  of  legis- 
lators of  the  requirements  of  the  industry  and  the  difficulties 
of  successfully  occupying  the  interior  of  the  continent ;  (2) 
special  encouragement  of  stud-breeding  ;  (3)  increasing  trans- 
portation facilities  ;  (4)  revision  of  taxation  and  charges  borne 
by  the  industry  in  order  to  prevent  an  undue  pressure  causing 
a  decrease  in  production  ;  .  (5)  campaign  of  education  to  en- 
courage small  flocks  and  herds  ;  (6)  experiments  in  closer 
settled  areas  in  feeding  ;  (7)  removal  of  shipping  restrictions 
and  harassing  regulations  ;  and  (8)  vigorous  methods  to  deal 
with  pests  and  vermin. 
An  attempt  has  been  .made  in  the  accompanying  diagram  to 


54  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

illustrate  the  scope  of  investigation  and  reform  necessary  to 
place  the  industry  on  a  practical  and  profitable  basis. 

All  this  means  national  organisation,  and  national  organisa- 
tion is  only  a  convenient  term  for  expressing  the  highest  form 
of  gtate  co-operation  with  individual  initiative  and  intelligence 
without  the  domination  of  either.  We  want,  more  than  any- 
thing else  in  Australia,  on  the  economic  side  of  life,  a  new  era 
of  primary  production,  a  new  spirit  of  conquest,  renewed  en- 
thusiasm, the  creation  of  more  wealth,  so  that  the  Common- 


CIIAMPION  SHORTHORN  BULL,  GRAND  DUKE  OF  CLIFTON,  BRISBANE 
Snow,  Q.,  1918 

Exhibited  by  the  Lomax  Pastoral  Co. 

wealth  may  carry  a  larger  population,  and  that  there  may  be 
national  progress  based  upon  better  conditions  and  a  standard 
of  comfort  greater  than  that  of  any  other  country.  All  this  is 
easy  to  accomplish,  and  in  no  direction  can  it  all  be  made 
possible  in  less  time  than  by  the  systematic  conquest  of  natural 
resources — the  promotion  of  rural  industries,  of  which  the 
greatest  and  most  profitable  for  the  nation  is  that  of  wool- 
growing  and  meat-raising  for  home  requirements  and  unre- 
stricted sale  oversea. 

It   is   by   organisation — national   and   individual — Govern- 


AUSTRALIA 


55 


mental  activity  in  investigating,  experimenting,  and  educat- 
ing, so  that  the  citizen  shall  be  well  equipped  when  coming 
into  daily  grips  with  problems  in  field  and  factory  and  world- 
wide competition — that  the  urgent  call  for  efficiency,  economy, 
and  human  uplift  can  find  adequate  response.  Economy  in 
production,  saner  methods  of  distribution,  and  only  such  legis- 
lative control  as  will  give  a  fair  field  to  the  mutual  interests  of 
industrially  employed  capital  and  labour  represent  the  corner- 
stone of  a  true  democracy.  Before  they  can  hope  to  people 


CHAMPION  HEREFORD  BULL,  MAGNITUDE  (IMP.),  BRISBANE  SHOW,  Q.,  1918 
Exhibited  by  Messrs.  Tindal  and  Son 

their  vast  continent  with  a  virile  white  race,  Australians  must 
understand  the  fundamental  economic  factor  of  national  safety 
and  progress,  that  it  is  production,  and  production  only,  that 
creates  wealth,  pays  wages,  regulates  prices,  and  fixes  the 
standard  of  living.  The  neglect  of  a  country's  natural  resources 
is  economic  waste,  and  economic  waste  means  public  and 
private  loss  and  eventually  national  decay. 

THE  INDIAN  ZEBU  FOR  AUSTRALIA 

If  it  is  possible  to  obtain  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment to  their  introduction,  it  is  very  probable  that  a  large 


56  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

consignment  of  Zebu  bulls  will  be  imported  from  India  into 
the  Northern  Territory. 

The  breed  is  tick-resistant,  and  will  fatten  practically  where 
our  own  stock  would  starve.  In  parts  of  the  Northern  Terri- 
tory and  the  north-west,  where  our  cattle  suffer  large  losses 
from  disease  and  numerous  insect  pests,  these  Zebus  would 
thrive  and  prove  a  source  of  profit  on  thousands  of  acres  of 
country  at  present  unoccupied.  The  illustration  herewith 
shows  the  fine  type  of  cattle  that  results  from  the  mating  of 


CHAMPION  HEREFORD  Cow,  JEAN,  BRISBANE  Snow,  Q.,  1918 
Exhibited  by  Mr.  J.  Sparkes 

the  Zebu  and  the  Shorthorn,  and  the  following  extract  from  a 
letter  from  Mr.  William  McDowall,  Christmas  Creek,  Charters 
Towers,  Queensland,  to  the  Royal  Zoological  and  Acclimatisa- 
tion Society  of  Victoria  regarding  a  Zebu  bull  sent  him  by  the 
Society,  is  worth  quoting  : — 

'  The  white  bull  I  got  from  you  is  a  very  big  beast  now, 
and  very  quiet ;  his  calves  are  a  year  bigger  than  ordinary 
cattle,  eat  dry  grass  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  get  and  keep 
fat  where  ordinary  cattle  die  ;  they  seem  to  be  immune  to  all 
diseases  ;  we  never  wash  or  spray  them  for  ticks,  and  we  never 
even  see  a  fly  or  insect  on  the  bull  himself," 


AUSTRALIA  57 

The  best  of  these  bulls  are  largely  purchased  for  America, 
where  they  are  used  with  success,  for  grazing  purposes,  and 
Americans  would  not  use  them,  with  the  experience  they  have 
had,  if  they  did  not  pay  them. 

The  Zebu -Shorthorn  cross  is  immune  from  tick  fever  and  tick- 
conveyed  diseases,  and  some  interesting  information  on  the  ; 
subject  was  recently  contributed  by  Mr.  A.  Despeissis  to  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  Western  Australia.    He  said  : — 

"I  was  collecting  information  regarding  the  purchase  and 
shipment  to  this  State  of  heavy  milking  Maltese  goats,  and 
while  discussing  the  matter  of  '  Maltese  fever,'  which  these 
animals  are  likely  to  carry,  some  interesting  experiments,  con- 
sisting of  crossing  Zebu  cattle  (Bos  indicus),  popularly  known 
as  '  Brahmans,'  with  ordinary  cattle,  were  brought  to  my 
notice.  The  object  of  these  experiments  was  to  ascertain 
whether  Zebus  themselves  or  their  crosses  are  immune  from 
'  tick  fever,'  or  c  piroplasmosis,'  which  is  very  severe  in  portions 
of  Algeria. 

"  The  fact  which  suggested  the  experiments  was  that  Mada- 
gascar, a  French  colony  heavily  stocked  with  humped-back 
cattle  (a  strain  of  Zebu),  was  free  from  tick  fever,  although  the 
tick  insects  themselves  abound  there  ;  moreover,  in  the  South 
African  colonies  where  the  humped-back  cattle  are  not  bred, 
European  cattle  are  severely  affected  by  '  red  water.' 

"  One  permanent  remedy,  however,  now  seems  to  be  sug- 
gested as  the  result  of  the  experiments  referred  to,  i.e.  the 
infusion  of  Zebu  blood  into  ordinary  cattle  subject  to  infection. 
The  attention  of  a  landed  proprietor  near  Bona  having  some 
years  ago  been  drawn  to  the  fact  that  a  couple  of  Zebus  he 
possessed  and  their  crosses  were  always  in  good  condition, 
whilst  the  cattle  around  suffered  greatly  or  died  from  the 
attacks  of  cattle  ticks,  led  to  a  careful  investigation  being  made, 
with  the  result  that  it  was  found  that  Zebus  and  their  crosses 
are  not  so  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  cattle  ticks,  and 
although  the  micro -parasites  of  the  blood  may  occasionally  be 
seen  on  microscopical  examination,  no  ill-effects  follow. 

"  The  secretion  from  the  sebaceous  glands  of  their  skin  has 
a  peculiar  odour,  which  seems  repugnant  to  insect  life.  The 
hide,  though  it  may  be  a,$  thin  as  in  European  breeds  of  cattle, 


58 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


appears  to  be  much  tougher  ;  the  hair  is  quite  short,  and  does 
not  provide  favourable  shelter  for  the  development  of  ticks." 

This  cross  seems  to  be  to  the  ox  what  the  mule  is  to  the 
horse ;  it  partakes  of  the  qualities  of  both  parents,  but,  how- 
ever, remains  fertile.  To  the  ox  it  owes  its  succulent  flesh 
and  humpless  back  ;  to  the  Zebu  the  smaller  bone  and  quick 
growth,  greater  activity,  hardiness,  and  resistance  to  tropical 
diseases.  The  Zebu  is  a  tropical  ox,  and  resists  there  where  it 
has  been  proved  other  cattle  are  carried  away  by  disease.  It 


THE  ZEBU-SHORTHORN  CROSS 

is  not  affected  either  by  the  damp  heat  or  by  prolonged  drought, 
which  favour  such  diseases  as  piroplasmosis,  but  it  cannot 
stand  too  much  cold.  It  will  prove  a  useful  animal  for  our 
tropics,  while  in  milder  climates  it  is  not  required. 

A  description  of  one  of  the  three  Zebu -Shorthorn  cross  raised 
by  Mr.  W.  McKenzie  Grant,  near  Dongarra,  W.A.,  is  interest- 
ing. The  cattle  were  sired  by  a  Derrimut  Shorthorn  bull,  the 
dam  being  a  Brahman  cow,  a  little  hump -backed  animal 
weighing  350  Ibs.  or  so  dressed,  and  standing  eight  or  nine 
hands,  and  which  had  for  many  years  occupied  an  exhibit  pen 
at  the  Zoological  Gardens,  South  Perth.  The  respective  live 
weights  of  the  trio  were  as  follows  :  2240  Ibs.  (six  years  old), 


AUSTRALIA  59 

1840  Ibs.  (five  years  old),  and  1750  Ibs.  (four  years  old).  They 
were  very  quiet.  The  dressed  weight  of  the  two  smallest  was 
1036  and  1026  Ibs.  respectively,  that  of  the  heaviest  1270  Ibs.  ; 
the  hides  about  90  Ibs.  green.  The  beef  the  butchers  pro- 
nounced Al  ;  2  to  3  in.  of  fat  all  over  the  carcase  ;  not  very 
much  kidney  and  caul  fat. 

"  I  have  purposely  dilated  on  this  important  discovery," 
says  Mr.  Despeissis,  "  which  affects  the  600,000  head  of  cattle 
we  have  in  the  north  and  north-west,  and  particularly  the 
half  a  million  head  known  to  be  already  in  the  Kimberleys. 
Indeed,  this  matter  is  one  which  affects  the  whole  of  the 
Australian  tropics,  where  the  cattle  tick  decimates  the  herds. 

"  If  this  method  of  combating  the  plague  is  found  successful 
(and  it  appears  to  have  been  in  countries  such  as  Brazil  and 
Uruguay),  its  value  to  Australia  would  be  enormous." 

FIXING  PRICES 

In  these  days  of  fixing  prices,  it  is  natural  that  one  should 
turn  to  history  to  see  if  similar  experiments  have  been  tried  in 
the  past,  and  how  they  succeeded. 

In  the  year  1815,  the  British  Government,  with  a  view  to 
encouraging  agriculture,  passed  a  law  and  fixed  the  price  of 
wheat  at  80 /-  a  quarter.  The  law  was  operative  only  for  a 
short  time,  when,  in  spite  of  the  penalty  imposed,  wheat  was 
bought  and  sold  at  38 /-  a  quarter,  and  the  statute  became  a 
dead  letter.  A  little  further  back,  in  the  years  of  the  French 
Revolution,  price  fixing  was  the  order  of  the  day,  and  very 
heavy  penalties  were  imposed  on  those  who  failed  to  bring 
their  produce  to  market  and  offer  it  publicly  at  the  price  fixed. 
The  price  of  wheat  was  fixed,  the  price  of  oats,  and  the  prices 
of  many  other  things.  Instead  of  having  the  effect  desired,  it 
had  the  opposite.  The  low  prices  fixed  caused  production  to 
fall  off  in  all  directions,  and  products,  especially  wheat,  became 
scarcer  and  scarcer,  until  bread  was  almost  unprocurable. 
Every  night,  long  before  daylight,  crowds  gathered  at  the 
bakers'  shops,  and  when  daylight  came  fought  for  the  few 
loaves  offering.  Children  were  starving  on  the  highways,  and 
it  was  a  common  sight  to  see  women  with  children  in  their 


60  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

arms  fighting  for  a  crust.  The  peasants  said  they  would  sooner 
eat  their  oats  themselves  than  sell  them  at  the  price  fixed  by 
the  Government.  The  law  fixing  prices  was  called  the  law  of 
the  maximum.  Professor  Sybel,  in  his  famous  history  of  the 
Revolution,  says  :  "  There  was  great  distress  all  through 
France  owing  to  the  Government  putting  a  fixed  price  on 
corn  "  (wheat).  "  Owing  to  the  law  of  the  maximum,  all  goods 
began  to  avoid  the  market."  "  The  law  of  the  maximum  first 
frightened  the  goods  from  the  .market  and  then  paralysed 
production."  "  The  law  of  the  maximum  had  the  effect  of 
impeding  trade  and  preventing  the  regular  supply  of  goods  to 
the  people."  Then  the  professor  goes  on  to  say  :  "  The  case 
was  not  so  bad  in  most  of  the  departments  with  regard  to 
meat,  as  with  bread,  because  the  law  of  the  maximum  had  for- 
got to  fix  a  tariff  for  live  cattle,  and  the  peasants  had,  there- 
fore, slaughtered  as  few  beasts  as  possible  in  Robespierre's  time, 
and  now  brought  to  market  and  sold  as  much  meat  as  was 
wanted  at  good  prices."  "  There  was  plenty  of  meat  obtain- 
able, because  the  law  of  the  maximum  did  not  apply  to  cattle." 
Less  than  five  years  of  this  interference  with  trade  on  the  part 
of  the  Government  brought  the  people  to  such  a  state  of  desti- 
tution and  misery  that  at  last  they  awoke  to  the  folly  of  trying 
to  override  natural  economic  laws  ;  and  the  National  Assembly 
swept  the  whole  of  this  legislation  from  the  statute  book. 
Then  business  began  immediately  to  revive.  The  celebrated 
economist,  Henry  Dunning  Macleod,  in  dealing  with  this  ques- 
tion, says  :  "  Does  not  everyone  know  that  a  high  price  of 
corn  is  the  way  to  attract  corn  where  it  is  deficient,  and  a  low 
price  the  way  to  repel  it  from  where  it  is  already  too  abun- 
dant ?  "  Then  he  goes  on  to  say  :  "  There  is  a  period  during 
which  sales  are  difficult  or  impracticable  ;  when  the  prices  are 
at  the  maximum  the  buyer  refuses  to  submit  to  them  ;  and 
when  they  are  at  a  minimum  the  seller  refuses  to  submit  to 
them."  Macleod  declares  that  supply  and  demand  are  the 
cause  of  value.  This,  of  course,  is  where  there  is  free  competi- 
tion. 

The  Federal  Government  will  do  well  to  pause  before  at- 
tempting to  fix  arbitrary  prices  for  beef  and  mutton.  There 
are  few  farmers  who  do  not  combine  grazing  to  some  extent 


AUSTRALIA  61 

with  agriculture,  and  who  in  bad  seasons  for  wheat  do  not 
rely  on  their  live-stock  to  pull  them  through.  This  question 
deeply  affects  the  two  great  primary  industries  of  the  country. 
The  graziers  and  farmers  of  Australia  will  have  to  bear  the 
greater  part  of  taxation  resultant  from  the  war.  In  addition, 
they  have  their  periodical  losses  through  droughts,  and  are 
having  it  badly  in  the  Eastern  Division  at  the  present  time. 
The  higher  prices  they  are  getting  for  their  fat-stock  now  will 
not  be  all  loss  to  the  consumer.  The  owners  of  live-stock  will 
pay  a  correspondingly  greater  amount  of  taxation,  which 
will  relieve  other  sections  of  the  community  to  that  extent. 
The  fact  that  fat-stock  have  reached  such  high  prices  must  act, 
and  is  acting  as  a  powerful  stimulant  to  stock-owners  to  make 
every  possible  effort  to  increase  their  flocks  and  herds.  When 
sheep  and  cattle  were  cheaper,  stock-owners  sent  large  numbers 
of  their  female  stock  to  market  ;  not  so  now.  Everyone  is 
hanging  on  to  his  female  stock  with  a  view  to  increasing  the 
numbers  as  fast  as  possible.  This  is  assuredly  one  of  the  causes 
for  the  high  prices  obtaining  ;  but  it  is  only  temporary.  It  is 
a  fixed  and  immutable  economic  law  that  the  dearer  any  pro- 
duct is  the  greater  will  be  the  effort  to  produce  it.  For  in- 
stance, let  the  price  of  wheat  be  6/-  per  bushel,  and  the  indus- 
try will  bound  ahead  ;  but  let  the  price  be  3/-  per  bushel,  and 
the  industry  will  (in  the  words  of  Lord  Macaulay)  droop  and 
wither  like  a  plant  in  an  uncongenial  air.  The  most  powerful 
stimulant  to  production  is  gain. 

CATTLE  PROSPECTS  IN  WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 

Western  Australia  is  so  big  a  country,  and  subject  to  so  many 
differing  conditions, 'that  any  general  description  of  the  cattle 
industry  is  impossible  ;  the  only  way  to  gain  a  clear  under- 
standing of  the  position  is  to  take  the  divisions  of  the  State 
separately. 

When  statistics  were  published  at  the  end  of  1917,  the 
State  possessed  958,484  cattle,  as  compared  with  863,930  at 
the  end  of  1916,  and  754,377  in  1907.  There  had  then  been 
an  apparent  steady  increase  during  the  previous  ten  years,  but 
this  increase  was  almost  wholly  in  the  Kimberley  division,  which 


62  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

lies  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  State  ;  and,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  main  North-west  division,  which  has  been  discarding 
cattle  for  sheep  for  many  years,  had  gone  back  in  its  numbers. 
Kimberley  is  the  cattle  end  of  the  country,  as  will  be  shown 
by  the  following  table  :— 

Cattle  at 
Statistical  Division.  31st  Dec.,  1917. 

East  Kimberley         .  .       ....  265,604 

West  Kimberley        . .          . .  408,366 

North-west     ..         •.?"     :  .,.  61,917 

Gascoyne        ..           ..         ;  .\  ..           ..           ..  4^,890 

Murchison  and  Goldfield      . .  73,349 

Agricultural  Areas    ..          ..  ..          ..          ..  99,358 

958,484 

The  figures  show  that  East  and  West  Kimberley  now  possess 
673,970  cattle,  or  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  herds  of  the 
State.  The  growth  in  Kimberley  has  been  rapid,  as  at  the 
end  of  1907  the  totals  were  463,735  for  the  two  Kimberleys, 
so  that  the  increase  in  the  ten-year  period  has  been  roughly 
50  per  cent. 

Kimberley  has  been  one  of  the  most  neglected  corners  of 
the  earth.  Blest  with  magnificent  soil  and  noble  rivers,  it  has 
been  cursed  by  misgovernment  and  neglect.  When  freezing 
works  and  canning  plants  years  ago  might  have  given  the 
country  a  market,  cleaned  up  all  the  aged  cattle,  and  en- 
couraged the  lessees  to  open  out  the  country,  the  Kimberley 
squatters  have  only  been  able  to  market  some  25,000  cattle 
annually,  by  shipment  to  Fremantle,  six  days'  steam  south- 
wards, or  to  occasionally  get  rid  of  a  few  thousand  store 
bullocks  to  Queensland. 

The  absence  of  markets  has  been  pronounced,  and  has  for 
many  years  induced  a  condition  of  things  closely  akin  to  stag- 
nation. Owners  have  kept  down  their  breeding,  as  it  was  no 
use  going  to  the  expense  of  improving  the  back  country  and 
carrying  more  cattle  till  the  runs  earned  more  money  than  a 
bare  subsistence  from  the  infrequent  sales.  And  consequently 
the  country  has  never  really  been  used,  developed,  or  stocked. 
All  that  the  lessees  have  done,  up  to  the  present,  is  to  run  the 
frontages  of  the  rivers  and  leave  development  till  later  on. 
The  cattle  seldom  work  back  more  than  seven  miles  from  the 


AUSTRALIA  63 

rivers,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  occupied  runs  is  really  waste. 
There  are  still  considerable  areas  which  have  never  been  taken 
up  ;  some  of  it  on  account  of  the  blacks,  who  are  troublesome 
in  the  back  country. 

But  all  accounts  agree  that  there  is  any  amount  of  room  for 
a  big  increase  in  the  Kimberley  lands  when  the  back  country 
is  opened  out  and  provided  with  water.  The  West  Australian 
Government  has  now  erected  treatment  works  at  Wyndham, 
and  although  they  are  largely  a  failure  in  that  they  have  cost 
a  ruinous  price  to  build,  and  that  they  can  only  offer  the  East 
Kimberley  pastoralist  2|d.  Ib.  for  his  beef  instead  of  its  value 
on  the  Queensland  coast,  still  they  will  open  out  some  sort  of 
a  market  for  the  country  ;  and  with  the  dawn  of  better  days 
the  Government  may  perchance  write  off  the  £350,000  to 
£400,000  of  waste  due  to  Departmentalism  and  day  labour, 
and  hand  the  concern  over  to  the  growers  to  run  for  them- 
selves. In  any  case  the  Wyndham  Works  represent  the 
beginning  of  a  new  chapter  in  the  history  of  Kimberley,  which 
will  be  progressive  in  exact  proportion  to  the  removal  of  the 
Government  blight  upon  its  marketing  facilities,  and  pros- 
perous as  that  consummation  is  effected.  Some  day  also  freez- 
ing works  must  surely  come  to  Derby,  the  front  of  West 
Kimberley,  to  terminate  the  day  of  cattle  shipments  south- 
ward, and  their  waste  of  100  Ibs.  per  bullock,  and  to  ship  away 
the  product  of  the  country  in  cold  storage,  or  in  tins,  with  the 
tallow  and  hides. 

Working  southwards  from  Kimberley  we  come  to  the  North- 
west and  Gascoyne  divisions — a  huge  and  partly  opened-out 
country,  running  some  111,807  cattle,  or  less  than  there  were 
ten  years  ago,  when  there  were  over  122,000  cattle  in  these 
provinces.  From  this  country  a  portion  of  the  beef  supply  of 
Perth  is  drawn,  and  notwithstanding  the  importation  of 
20,000  cattle  from  Kimberley  in  1916,  and  10,000  in  1918,  the 
consumptive  drain  upon  the  country  is  more  than  it  can  stand. 
There  are  not  3000  bullocks  of  marketable  ages  north  of  Mee- 
katharra  and  south  of  Wallal  to-day  ;  and  there  is  every  in- 
dication that  in  a  year  or  two  it  will  be  difficult  to  keep  pace 
with  consumption. 

There  is  plenty  of  cattle  country  vacant  in  the  North-west, 


64  THE   WOELD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

but  no  one  is  troubling  about  breeding.  Sheep  pay  better, 
and  the  cattle  question  is  left  to  look  after'  itself.  No  doubt, 
as  export  develops  and  the  whole  country  advances,  the  cattle 
numbers  will  increase,  and  increase  considerably. 

On  the  Murchison  and  the  Eastern  Goldfields  there  are  some 
73,349  cattle,  over  20,660  of  which  are  held  round  Kalgoorlie, 
•which  is,  for  the  first  time  in  its  brief  history,  able  to  eat  its 
own  roasts  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  year.  There  is 
still  much  unoccupied  country  in  these  divisions,  but,  served 
as  the  country  is  with  railways,  it  is  more  likely  to  increase 
its  sheep  numbers  than  its  cattle.  The  country  along  the 
Great  Western  Railway,  too,  may  probably  run  some  cattle, 
but  the  chances  are  that  here  as  elsewhere  sheep  will  be  the 
objective. 

Lastly,  we  have  the  agricultural  areas  of  the  South-western 
Division,  which  ran  120,582  cattle  ten  years  ago,  and  only 
counts  up  99,358  to-day.  The  South-west  is  not  a  cattle  coun- 
try, and  the  most  that  can  be  hoped  for  is  the  development  of 
dairying  in  the  improved  country,  and  a  gradual  but  slow 
increase,  perhaps  principally  of  dairy  breeds,  and  to  a  lesser 
degree  of  beef  breeds.  But  that  increase  is  not  likely  to  be 
sudden  or  considerable. 

From  this  sketch  it  will  be  seen  that  Western  Australian 
increase  will  be  in  the  tropics  and  very  largely  in  proportion 
to  the  development  of  cold  storage.  Southwards,  as  the  popu- 
lation grows,  there  is  little  probability  of  any  noticeable  in- 
crease in  the  day  of  this  generation.  And  even  if  the  present 
figures  were  doubled  they  would  still  be  inconsiderable. 


NEW  ZEALAND 

THIS  stock-owner's  paradise  stands  alone  among  all  other 
countries  that  I  am  describing  as  being  an  ideal  stock-raising 
country,  with  the  healthiest  of  climates,  an  absence  of  serious 
stock  diseases,  with  the  richest  of  pasture,  and  the  industry  of 
its  farmers.  New  Zealand  farmers  need  never  fear  that  labour  , 
troubles  are  going  to  block  their  progress,  because  they  are 
in  the  happy  position  of  being  able  to  do  all  their  own  work 
at  any  pinch  which  may  occur.  Unionists  have  tried  in  the 
past  to  block  the  shipment  of  the  farmers'  produce,  but  have 
been  badly  beaten  every  time,  until  now  they  recognise  that 
it  is  to  their  interest  to  work  satisfactorily.  Another  reason 
why  New  Zealand  is  a  good  and  progressive  country  is  because 
the  bulk  of  the  people  own  property,  mostly  of  moderate 
dimensions  ;  therefore,  it  is  hard  indeed  for  socialists  or 
anarchists  to  get  elected  to  Parliament. 

New  Zealand's  sheep,  at  last  census,  amounted  to  26,538,302, 
and  cattle  2,500,000.  Her  exports  of  mutton  and  lambs  in  a 
pre-war  year  amounted  to  2,500,000  sheep,  3,500,000  lambs, 
and  55,000  carcases  of  beef,  the  mutton  and  lamb  shipments 
alone  amounting  to  25  per  cent  of  her  flocks. 

In  the  North  Island  the  sheep  are  almost  entirely  fattened 
on  grass  ;  bat  in  the  South  Island,  particularly  in  Canterbury 
and  Northern  Otago,  on  root  crops.  The  bulk  of  the  beef 
exports  are  shipped  from  the  North  Island.  As  will  be  seen 
by  the  list  of  the  meat-works  at  the  end  of  this  volume,  New 
Zealand  is  well  provided  with  them  in  every  part  of  the  country. 
Most  of  these,  at  the  present  time,  are  full  of  frozen  meat  of 
all  kinds,  and  a  vast  reserve  is  awaiting  Great  Britain  directly 
shipping  resumes  its  pristine  activities. 

It  was  thought,  some  years  ago,  that  New  Zealand  could 
not  much  increase  its  flocks  and  herds  ;    but  scrub  country, 
and  native  lands  in  the  North  Island,  still  offer  great  pros- 
F  65 


66 


THE   WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 


pects  for  stock-raising  of  all  kinds,  and  land  which  has  been 
ignored  in  past  years,  for  its  poor  quality,  is  now  being  found 
to  be  good  healthy  stock  country. 

A  country  such  as  this  is  only  needs  men  who  are  not  afraid 


A  WAR  WORKER 

The  little  Maori  Princess  who  shepherds  Mr.  C.  H.  Ensor's 
Corriedale  sheep  at  White  Rock,  Rangiora,  N.Z 

of  work,  to  continue  to  be  regular  large  supplier  of  food-stuffs 
for  the  Empire.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  of  the  highest  quality, 
and  every  care  is  taken  to  ship  the  meat  in  the  best  condition. 

THE  NEW  ZEALAND  FROZEN  MEAT  TRADE 

Mr.  A.  S.  Paterson  (N.Z.),  writes  me  :  "  The  very  interesting 
compilation  which  you  published  lately  in  The  Pastoral 
Review  is  the  most  complete  list  of  New  Zealand  freezing 
houses  that  has  yet  appeared,  and  is  thoroughly  up  to  date." 


NEW   ZEALAND 


69 


"  I  have  based  upon  it  another  compilation,  bringing 
together  the  information  it  contained,  and  some  other  figures 
bearing  on  the  trade,  which,  taken  together,  furnish  a  some- 
what complete  statistical  view  of  it  from  this  end,  as  regards 
its  volume  and  the  equipment  for  carrying  it  on.  The  com- 
pilation is  appended.  The  export  figures  are  taken  from  the 
valuable  half-yearly  card  issued  by  the  Shaw,  Savill  and  Albion 
Company. 

"  The    outstanding    features    shown    are,   first,    the    large 


STUD  KOMXEYS  ox  MOTUTARA,  WEST  COAST,  AUCKLAND  PROVINCE, 
NORTH  PROVINCE,  N.Z. 

numbers  of  freezing  houses  scattered  over  the  Dominion, 
being  forty-one  in  all,  when  the  eight  under  construction  are 
finished — twenty-five  being  in  the  North  Island,  and  sixteen 
in  the  South  Island. 

"  The  number  and  distribution  of  these  works  is  such  that 
scarcely  any  farmer  in  the  Dominion  can  have  a  fat  beast 
ready  any  day,  or  a  thousand  of  them,  without  a  freezing 
house  fairly  close  by  to  take  them  off  his  hands  immediately, 
and  a  steamer  to  carry  them  to  London  within  a  week  or  two. 
It  comes  wonderfully  near  to  that  ideal  condition  for  the 
grazier—  "  not  a  blade  of  grass  wasted."  It  is  very  remarkable 


•70 


THE   WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 


that  so  very  far  away  from  the  centres  of  consumption,  and 
for  a  perishable  article,  such  a  favourable  position  should  have 
been  attained  by  the  New  Zealand  grazier,  through  means  of 
the  refrigerating  process.  Since  the  inception  of  that  process, 
this  favourable  position  has  always  been  present  in  New  Zea- 
land, first  latent  as  it  were,  and  for  the  last  thirty  years  gradu- 
ally materialising  with  the  advance  of  the  country  and  the 
general  progress  of  the  frozen  meat  trade.  It  is  based  primarily 
upon  one  thing — the  suitability  of  the  country  in  soil  and 
climate  to  grow  English  pasture  grasses. 


GROUP  OF  FAT  BULLOCKS,  NEW  ZEALAND 

'  The  writer  was  once  in  the  company  of  several  men  high 
up  in  English  public  life.  The  subject  of  New  Zealand  came 
up,  and  one  of  them  asked  abruptly  :  'What  is  the  chief 
among  the  resources  of  your  country  ?  Is  it  gold  or  timber, 
or  what  ?  '  The  writer  replied  promptly  :  '  It  is  English 
grass.'  The  looks  that  focussed  upon  him  indicated  both 
surprise  and  doubt  of  his  mental  condition.  But  he  had  a 
first-class  opportunity  to  explain  the  singular  adaptability  of 
the  country  to  grow  these  pasture  grasses,  and  produce  just 
the  class  of  meat  wanted  in  England,  arid  the  excellent  returns 
which  the  cultivation  of  these  pastures  yielded  to  the  sheep 


NEW  ZEALAND 


73 


farmer,  as  well  as  the  leading  share  they  had  borne  in  the 
advancement  of  New  Zealand. 

"  Well,  these  forty-one  works  have  a  '  killing  capacity  '  of 
130,300  sheep  and  3590  cattle  per  day  !  How  full  a  provision 
this  is  for  the  country's  requirements  will  be  understood  when 
it  is  noted  that  were  the  full '  killing  capacity  '  put  in  operation 
for  anything  distantly  approaching  to  full  time,  say  250  days  in 
the  year,  it  would  suffice  to  put  through  the  killing  rooms 
32,575,000  sheep  and  lambs,  and  897,500  cattle,  or  about  one- 


STUD  ROMNEYS  ON  MOTUTARA,  WEST  COAST,  AUCKLAND  PROVINCE,  NORTH 

ISLAND,  N.Z. 

third  more  of  the  former  than  there  were  sheep  alive  in  the 
Dominion  (24,830,328)  in  1916,  along  with  three-fourths  of  the 
number  of  cattle  alive  at  the  present  time,  outside  the  dairy 
herds  of  three-quarters  of  a  million  cows.  Again,  the  storage 
space  provided  at  the  works  is  equal  to  4,647,000  sheep  of 
60  Ibs.  each,  or  equal  to  about  two-thirds  of  the  year's  export 
of  sheep  and  lambs.  These  are  fanciful  ways  of  putting  the 
matter,  no  doubt,  but  they  give  a  striking  idea  of  the  vast 
equipment  that  has  been  provided  for  carrying  on  the  trade. 

"  The   position,    then,    is   that   the   country   is    splendidly 
equipped  with  killing  and  freezing  power  and  with  storage 


74  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

capacity.  Nothing  but  a  lucrative  trade  could  have  prompted 
all  this  rapid  development.  There  may  indeed  be  some  sug- 
gestion on  the  face  of  the  figures  of  the  equipment  being  over- 
done. But  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  a  freezing  house 
plant  must  be  equal  to  the  maximum  daily  demand  upon  it 
in  the  best  of  good  seasons,  or  else  it  does  not  adequately  serve 
the  requirements  of  its  district  or  its  clientele.  But  such 
maximum  call  upon  it  only  obtains  for  a  more  or  less  limited 
season  when  the  grass  is  at  its  best,  then  the  supply  of  stock 
gradually  falls  back  to  a  fraction  only  of  what  the  plant  can 
deal  with,  but  if  a  given  freezing  house  is  not  equal  to  handling 
the  stock  naturally  falling  to  it  during  the  heaviest  fattening 
season,  the  stock  will  find  its  way  to  some  competing  works. 
Put  it  another  way,  the  supply  of  fat  stock  must  be  variable 
and  uncertain,  hence  this  surplus  equipment  for  dealing  with 
a  maximum,  and  not  only  an  average  supply.  Several  times 
in  the  history  of  this  business  it  has  been  doubted  if  the 
equipment  had  not  grown  too  quickly  and  outstripped  the 
requirements  of  the  trade.  But  these  doubts  never  lasted 
long.  The  wonderful  ease  with  which  the  apparently  surplus 
plant  has  quickly  been  overtaken  again  and  again,  by  the 
production  has  been  surprising. 

"  One  of  the  features  of  the  trade  almost  from  its  inception 
has  been  the  co-existence  of  two  classes  of  freezing  works,  viz. 
farmers'  works  and  proprietary  works  ;  the  latter  making  a 
business  of  buying  stock  from  the  farmers,  freezing  the  meat 
and  manipulating  the  other  products  for  the  company's  .own 
account  ;  while  the  basis  in  the  former  case  hag  been  that  of 
freezing  for  farmers'  account  or  for  account  of  any  buyer  from 
the  farmer,  and  the  treating  the  by-products  in  a  similar  way. 
Such  companies  were  projected  and  owned  by  farmers  and 
their  agents  in  the  first  instance.  Time  has  modified  their 
working,  and  many  of  these  companies  now  also  deal  largely 
in  stock  for  freezing,  etc.,  on  their  own  account.  The  pro- 
prietary companies  also  freeze  for  farmers'  account  when 
required,  but  it  is  a  secondary  feature  of  their  business.  As 
near  as  one  can  say,  seventeen  of  the  forty-one  works  may  be 
reckoned  as  proprietary  works,  leaving  twenty-four  as  farmers' 
works.  The  working  of  the  double  system  gives  most  of  the 


NEW   ZEALAND 


77 


farmers  the  choice  of  having  their  stock  frozen  for  shipment 
on  their  own  account  to  London,  or  selling  the  live-stock  or 
the  frozen  carcases  to  one  of  the  many  buyers  for  English 
account.  It  is  a  healthy  feature  that  all  the  ways  of  doing  the 
business  seem  profitable.  No  one  can  say  that  farmers  who 
have  shipped  to  London  on  their  own  account  have  done 
better  than  those  who  have  sold  to  proprietary  works  or  to 
local  buyers.  But  the  trade  goes  on  healthily  and  profitably 


WHAKATANE  MEAT  WORKS,  NEW  ZEALAND 

to  the  satisfaction  of  all,  while  both  the  classes  of  companies 
have  paid  good  dividends,  and  built  up  the  fine  plants  largely 
out  of  profits. 

"  One  can  hardly  refer  to  this  subject  without  mentioning 
the  splendid  spirit  of  enterprise  shown  by  the  shipping  com- 
panies engaged  in  the  trade.,  in  keeping  up  the  refrigerated 
tonnage  so  well  that  scarcely  ever  before  the  war  was  a  freezing 
house  stopped  working  because  there  was  not  freight  to  carry 
the  carcases.  But  since  the  war  broke  out  there  have  been 
some  delays  in  shipment,  arising  out  of  the  commandeering 


78  THE  H WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

of  the  refrigerated  ships  by  the  Imperial  authorities  for  other 
purposes.  The  freight  dislocation  has,  however,  been  less  than 
in  many  other  trades. 

'The  prospects  after  the  war  are  of  the  brightest.  The 
good  profits  reaped  by  farmers  from  the  war  prices  may  be 
expected  to  stimulate  settlement  and  increased  cultivation  of 
land.  Just  what  the  measure  of  this  may  be  no  one  can  tell, 
but  no  better  stimulus  to  these  operations  could  exist.  It  is 
generally  recognised  that  the  bringing  into  cultivation  of  more 


MEAT  WORKS  AT  KAIAPOI,  NEW  ZEALAND 

land  must  in  the  North  Island  be  very  extensive  for  years  to 
come,  and  that  the  South  Island  is  also  far  from  its  limit  of 
production  in  meat.  Other  markets  than  London  will  be 
competing  for  our  meat.  It  is  believed  that  America  will 
want  the  quality  of  mutton  and  lamb  which  we  can  give  them 
and  which  they  can  never  get  at  home.  And  so  the  trade 
which  has  re -made  New  Zealand  during  the  last  thirty  years 
may  be  expected  to  continue  its  great  contribution  to  the 
country's  prospects. 

"  It  may  be  said  that  New  Zealand  differs  from  Australia  in 
not  having  yet  found  other  markets  for  meat  than  the  United 


NEW   ZEALAND  81 

Kingdom.  There  were  great  hopes  of  a  trade  with  Canada  a 
few  years  ago,  but  it  only  reached  a  volume  equal  to  80,000 
sheep  in  its  highest  year — 1913." 

Sir  Thomas  Mackenzie,  K.C.M.G.,  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
British  Cold  Storage  Association,  said  : — 

"  Refrigeration  was  the  means  of  the  development  of  the 
Overseas  Dominions.  What  were  the  conditions  prevailing 
before  this  industry  was  initiated  ?  Cattle  and  sheep  were 
almost  unsaleable.  A  leg  of  mutton  could  be  bought  for  a 
shilling.  Why,  even  a  sheep  was  sold  in  his  country  (New 
Zealand)  at  from  6d.  to  I/-.  Boiling-down  works  were  estab- 
lished for  the  mere  purpose  of  extracting  fat  from  the  sheep, 
the  rest  of  the  carcase  being  wasted,  and  that  at  a  time  when 
meat  was  so  urgently  required  in  the  great  centres  of  popula- 
tion in  this  country.  In  Australia  cattle — splendid  bullocks — 
were  sold  at  £2  per  head.  His  friend,  the  late  Mr.  Christison, 
who  had  established  the  first  works  at  Poole  Island,  Queens- 
land, had  told  him  that  such  was  the  case  in  that  colony.  In 
the  '  History  of  the  Frozen  Meat  Trade,'  of  which  their 
Secretary  (Mr.  Raymond)  was  part  author,  there  was  a  state- 
ment to  the  effect  that  eight  hundred  thousand  sheep  and 
seventy-three  thousand  cattle  were  boiled  down  for  tallow, 
producing  110,000  tons,  which  were  sold  for  £300,000.  That 
worked  out  at  2/6  for  each  sheep,  and  less  than  £3  for  each 
bullock.  They  could  never  too  greatly  honour  the  enterprising 
men  who  began  the  work  in  the  Overseas,  such  as  Brydone, 
Roberts,  Cooke,  Reid,  Grigg,  Davidson,  and  others.  The  first 
cargo  of  frozen  meat  from  New  Zealand  was  sent  Home  in  the 
ship  Dunedin,  and  the  prices  realised  in  London  and  Glasgow 
were  6Jd.  per  Ib.  for  mutton  and  7Jd.  per  Ib.  for  lamb.  Only 
one  sheep  in  the  whole  cargo  was  condemned.  At  that  time 
their  flocks  were,  in  round  figures,  12,000,000,  and  it  was 
thought  by  those  who  had  studied  the  question  that  they  could 
not  bear  a  greater  drain  for  exportation  purposes  than  300,000 
per  annum.  Later  on,  Mr.  Brydone  foretold  that  it  might  be 
possible  to  export  4,000,000  carcases.  What  was  the  history 
of  the  development  and  its  effects  on  our  community  ? 

"  New  Zealand  had  exported  nearly  half  the  total  number 
of  sheep  and  lambs  that  had  been  brought  into  the  British 


82  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

market  since  the  initiation  of  refrigeration.  The  total  number 
of  carcases  exported  to  this  country  was  224,000,000.  New 
Zealand  had  sent  107,000,000  of  this  number,  Australia  and 
the  Argentine  being  responsible  for  the  balance  of  117,000,000. 
And  what  of  the  prosperity  that  had  followed  this  ?  In  1880 
the  population  'of  New  Zealand  was  less  than  half  a  million  ; 
it  was  now  1,180,000.  In  1880  lands  in  occupation  amounted 
to  24,000  holdings  ;  there  were  now  80,000  holdings,  com- 
prising 42,000,000  acres  in  cultivation,  and  the  capital  value 
of  the  land  was  £389,000,000,  as  against  £100,000,000  in  1880. 
"  It  must  not  be  concluded  that  all  this  work  had  been  easily 
done.  Its  accomplishment  required  great  enterprise,  energy, 
knowledge  and  capital.  Might  he  strike  a  personal  note  ?  He 
was  a  shareholder  in  one  of  the  earliest  freezing  companies, 
and  in  later  years  became  the  Minister  of  the  Department 
(Agriculture)  which  had  under  its  charge  the  supervision  of  all 
abattoirs  in  New  Zealand,  and  the  Inspectors  who  examined 
every  animal  before  it  was  exported,  seeing  to  its  absolute 
healthiness,  and  attaching  to  every  carcase  a  certificate  that 
it  was  absolutely  free  from  all  disease." 

THE  BRITISH  NAVY 

A  few  particulars  may  be  given  here  of  what  the  British 
Navy  did  for  New  Zealand  for  four  past  seasons  : — 

Shipped  2,148,418  carcases  of  beef,  lost  18,829  quarters  ; 
7,780,995  carcases  mutton,  lost  106,260  carcases  ;  9,189,564 
carcases  lamb,  lost  91,080  carcases  ;  1,100,000  crates  cheese, 
lost  63,000  crates. 

Out  of  570,000  bales  of  wool  only  9,668  were  lost  during 
1917  and  1918.  This  is  a  wonderful  performance,  and  one 
the  Navy  may  feel  proud  of.  All  such  statistics  should  be 
printed  for  use  in  the  schools  of  the  British  Empire. 


AKGENTINA 

THIS  magnificent  country  lies  within  lat.  22  to  56  south  ;  its 
area  is  1,139,979  square  miles,  and  its  population  8,500,000. 
It  is  bounded  by  Chile,  Bolivia,  Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  is  at  the  present  time  the  maii^  / 
exporter  of  frozen  and  chilled  beef  in  the  world.  It  is  notV 
likely  that  during  the  next  quarter  of  a  century  any 
other  country  will  rival  it.  Its  most  promising  competitor 
is  Brazil,  which  will  have  the  advantage  of  a  four  days' 
shorter  trip  to  the  Home  market  ;  but  the  Brazilians 
have  a  very  long  way  to  go  to  catch  up  their  southern 
neighbour  in  the  quality  of  their  live-stock.  The  rise  of  the 
frozen  meat  export  trade  of  Argentina  reads  like  a  romance, 
and  it  is  given  in  detail  in  that  excellent  work  by  the  late  Mr. 
J.  T.  Critchell,  and  Joseph  Raymond,  London  representatives 
of  The  Pastoral  Review,  "  The  History  of  the  Frozen  Meat 
Trade."  As  late  as  the  eighties  in  the  last  century,  Argentine 
cattle,  of  which  there  were  vast  herds,  were  poor  and  miserable, 
simply  killed  for  their  hides  fbnd  dried  beef.  But  directly 
refrigeration  was  perfected,  the  wealthy  estancieros  went  to 
Britain  and  purchased  the  very  best  sires  procurable  ;  money 
was  no  object,  so  long  as  they  got  the  best,  and  this  has  gone 
on  ever  since.  Although  other  countries  get  some  excellent 
sires,  the  very  best  still  go  to  Argentina,  and  still  they  pay 
the  highest  prices  for  what  they  take  a  fancy  to.  Shorthorns, 
Herefords,  Angus,  Devons  and  Lincoln  Reds — representatives 
of  all  these  types  are  in  great  demand.  There  is  still  abundant 
land  both  for  breeding  and  fattening  more  cattle.  As  more  land 
is  laid  down  in  alfalfa,  so  more  cattle  can  be  annually  turned 
off  young  and  of  big  weights  for  the  freezing  works.  It  is  stated 
by  one  authority  that  not  one-fifth  of  Argentina  has  yet  been 
called  into  productivity,  either  for  agriculture  or  cattle  raising. 

83 


84  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

Vast  areas  between  Bahia  Blanca — the  big  seaport  south  of 
the  river  Plate — and  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  are  still  available 
for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  as  their  wonderful  railway  systems 
spread,  these  lands  become  stocked  and  of  more  value  to  the 
country.  This  is  where  private  railways  are  so  much  more 
beneficial  to  a  young  country  than  hide -bound  State-owned 
systems  which  keep  a  country  comparatively  stagnant.  Again, 
there  is  ample  room  in  the  far  west,  in  the  northern  territories, 
and  even  beyond  their  boundaries  on  the  sub-pasture  land  of 
the  Paraguayan  Chaco,  and  in  the  great  cattle  country  of 
Southern  Brazil,  to  breed  far  more  stock  than  at  present  exist. 

West  of  Bahia  Blanca,  considerably  beyond  the  termini  of 
the  railroads,  in  the  foothills  of  the  Andes,  where  there  is 
plenty  of  water  and  good  grazing  all  the  year  round — although 
the  winters  are  quite  severe  at  times — land  may  be  rented 
from  the  Government  at  a  very  moderate  rate  indeed. 

Cattle  can  also  be  purchased  in  that  territory,  in  almost  any 
desirable  number,  at  a  few  pounds  per  head.  It  is  the  custom 
there  to  graze  the  cattle  all  the  winter,  and  then  in  the  spring 
to  drive  them,  by  easy  stages,  to  the  railroad  centres,  either 
east  or  north,  although  at  times  ranchers  have  taken  them 
across  the  Andes  for  marketing  at  Valparaiso,  Chile  ;  but,  as 
a  rule,  the  cattle  are  pastured  on  alfalfa  lands  in  the  province 
of  Buenos  Aires  before  being  marketed. 

Although,  practically  speaking,  cattle  raising  can  be 
carried  on  in  any  part  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  there 
are  regions  which,  for  climatic  and  topographical  reasons,  are 
more  favourable  to  the  industry  than  others.  Chief  amongst 
such  regions  is  the  Pampa  district,  the  climate  of  which  is 
sufficiently  mild  to  allow  of  breeding  all  the  year  round. 
Under  the  denomination  of  "Pampa"  may  be  included 
the  whole  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  greater  part 
of  Cordoba  and  Santa  Fe,  and  parts  of  the  adjacent  provinces 
and  territories,  which  constitute  one  immense  natural  plain, 
without  any  greater  obstacle  to  the  transit  of  stock  than 
gradual  slopes,  small  ridges,  or,  in  some  districts,  woods  of 
or  lesser  extent.  The  central  portion  of  this  region  has 
been  known  for  some  years  as  the  alfalfa  zone.  Alfalfa  culti- 
vation, however,  has  expanded  to  such  an  extent  on  every 


ARGENTINA 


87 


side  of  this  zone  that  to-day  the  designation  records  more 
accurately  the  district  of  its  origin  than  the  limits  of  its  actual 
cultivation.  The  north  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  owing 
to  its  situation  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana  and  the  River 
Plate,  and  due  to  its  having  been  settled  longer  than  any  other, 
is  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  imaginable.  After  having 
been  for  long  devoted  to  sheep  raising,  it  is  to-day  the  principal 
lire  of  maize  growing.  The  north-eastern  portion  of  this 


A  WEALTHY  ARGENTINE'S  ESTANCIA 

Mr.  Hector  Cobo's  homestead  at  "La  Armonia,"  Southern  part  of  Buenos 
Aires  Province. 

province  consists,  generally  speaking,  of  low-lying  lands,  sub- 
ject to  frequent  inundations.  The  Provincial  Government, 
however,  has  undertaken  drainage  works,  the  completion  of 
which  should  have  beneficial  effect  upon  the  value  of  these 
lands.  The  western  district  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires, 
the  south  of  Cordoba,  and  the  province  of  Santa  Fe,  the 
eastern  portion  of  San  Luis  and  the  Pampa  Central,  present 
very  slight  differences  as  regards  climate  and  soil.  The  Argen- 
tine Mesopotamian  provinces  of  Entre  Rios  and  Corrientes 
likewise  constitute  an  admirable  cattle-raising  region,  due  to 
favourable  climate,  abundant  pasture,  and  ample  water  supply. 


88  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

Lastly,  Patagonia,  cold  and  windy,  is  gradually  attaining  a 
position  as  one  of  the  healthiest  sheep -rearing  districts  of  the 
world. 

Argentina  is  divided  into  14  provinces  and  10  territories. 
It  is  largely  composed  of  immensely  rich  plains  with  great 
depth  of  river  deposit  soil,  and  is  almost  bare  of  trees,  except 
round  the  numerous  estancias,  where  the  owners  invariably 
plant  largely.  In  the  Chaco  will  be  found  dense  forest 
country.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  to  be  found  all  over  the  Pampa, 
from  the  extreme  north  to  the  extreme  south,  where  are  the 
territories  of  Rio  Negro,  Chubut,  and  Santa  Cruz.  However, 
the  bulk  of  the  good  cattle  are  to  be  found  in  the  east,  or 
Atlantic  side,  and  sheep  on  the  west  and  south.  Patagonia  is 
almost  entirely  devoted  to  sheep,  nearly  all  of  which  are  of  the 
various  British  breeds,  or  crossbreds. 

It  is  recorded  that  the  first  appearance  of  cattle  on  the 
River  Plate  was  early  in  the  sixteenth  century,  when  seven 
cows  and  a  bull  were  brought  from  Brazil,  through  Paraguay, 
by  two  Portuguese,  the  brothers  Cipriano  and  Vicente  Goes  ; 
but  soon  after,  large  numbers  were  imported  by  Juan  de 
Galazary  Espinoza,  treasurer  to  the  Government.  The  first 
sheep  were  introduced  in  1550,  and  large  numbers  of  horses, 
cattle  and  sheep,  in  a  semi- wild  state,  strayed  down  south  to 
Argentina's  rich  pastures,  from  Peru  and  Brazil. 

Roughly,  Argentina  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions, 
and  in  each  separate  portion  almost  all  the  cattle  of  one  class 
in  the  Republic  are  included.  The  principal  herds  of  Durhams 
are  held  within  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  southern 
half  of  the  province  of  Cordoba,  the  southern  portion  of  Santa 
Fe,  the  south-east  corner  of  San  Luis,  and  a  small  portion  of 
the  territory  of  Pampa  Central. 

Entre  Rios  and  a  part  of  the  south  of  Corrientes  holds  the 
main  breet.ing  place  for  Herefords. 

The  outskirts  of  the  country  are  chiefly  devoted  to  Criollo 
and  grade  Criollos,  these  being  cattle  bred  from  the  origina 
Spanish  importation  of  hundreas  of  years  back,  and  afterward* 
allowed  to  become  wild.  Down  south  there  are  very  few  cattle 
the  country  being  chiefly  devoted  to  sheep. 

The  Shorthorns  are  run  on  the  alfalfa  and  on  all  the  best  of 


ARGENTINA 


89 


the  country,  as  owing  to  their  early  maturity  they  give  the 
best  results  on  the  high-priced  land,  and  they  are  very  nice 
cattle  indeed.  The  first  impression  one  receives  after  being 
struck  by  the  quality  of  the  cattle  is  the  number  run  on  the. 
area  and  the  quiet  nature  of  the  stock. 

Pasture. — The  indigenous  grasses  of  the  Pampa  region  known 
as  coarse  grass  have  gradually  been  replaced  in  a  ^radius  of 
about  150  miles  round  Buenos  Aires  by  the  so-called  soft 
grass,  the  seed  of  which  was  brought  over  by  the  Spanish  in- 


GROUP  OF  BREEDING  MARES  AT  "  EL  SOCORRO,"  PROVINCE  OF  BUENOS  AIRES 

vaders  amongst  the  forage  for  their  horses.  This  grass, 
although  actually  of  little  agricultural  value,  was  nevertheless 
superior  to  the  Pampean  grasses.  Before  the  spread  of  alfalfa 
(the  "  Queen  of  the  Pampa  "),  land  was  classified  as  of  coarse 
grass  and  soft  grass. 

Estancias. — The  year  1878  marked  the  beginning  of  a  new 
era  of  extraordinary  development  in  the  Argentine  estancias. 
In  that  year  the  Indians  were  finally  subdued,  and  the  settle- 
ment of  an  enormous  tract  of  fertile  territory  became  possible. 
High  rents  and  heavy  taxation  induced  many  breeders  to 
migrate  from  the  inside  camps  to  the  cheaper  and  less  crowded 


90  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

lands  thus  opened  up.  In  order  to  defray  the  cost  of  the  cam- 
paign against  the  Indians,  four  thousand  leagues  of  land  had 
been  sold  by  the  Government,  at  the  price  of  400  gold  dollars 
per  square  league.  From  1878  to  about  1890  was  a  period  of 
transition,  migration  and  settlement,  no  great  progress  being 
made  in  refining  stock  or  in  cultivation,  or  in  increased  value 
of  land.  The  increasing  areas  placed  under  cultivation  in  the 
inside  lands  compelled  all  breeders,  who  did  not  own  their 
land,  to  seek  new  pastures,  with  the  result  that  from  1890  to 
the  present  day  an  amazing  development  has  taken  place. 
The  native  type  of  both  sheep  and  cattle  has  almost  entirely 
disappeared.  The  sires  imported  from  Europe  have  com- 
pletely transformed  the  herds  and  flocks  of  a  few  years  ago, 
so  that  to-day  the  average  Argentine  estancia  can  compare 
favourably  with  any  other  similar  establishment  in  the  world. 
The  immense  industry  opened  up  with  the  advent  of  the  freez- 
ing companies,  and  the  high  standard  exacted  by  the  require- 
ments of  their  European  customers  have  done  much  to  im- 
prove Argentine  live-stock.  The  praiseworthy  and  eminently 
successful  efforts  of  the  Argentine  Rural  Society  towards 
raising  the  standard  of  Argentine  live-stock  by  means  of  cattle 
shows,  prizes,  publications,  and  propaganda,  entitle  them  to 
the  grateful  recognition  of  the  whole  country. 

Recently  a  friend,  who  was  once  manager  of  a  big  Australian 
station,  wrote  me  from  Argentina  regarding  their  methods 
of  working  Argentine  cattle,  and  his  details  were  as  follows  : — 

The  paddocks  are  all  small,  about  1500  acres  being  a  large 
paddock  ;  usually  they  contain  between  400  and  500  acres. 
All  classes  of  stock  are  kept  separate,  each  age  and  class 
running  in  adjacent  paddocks  ;  furthermore,  all  steers  are 
graded,  the  most  advanced  being  drafted  from  the  others,  the 
one  object  being  to  get  them  fit  for  market  as  early  as  possible. 
A  buyer  from  a  frigorifico  would  leave  in  disgust,  without 
offering,  if  shown  bullocks  boxed  up  as  is  done  in  Queensland, 
and  expected  to  offer  for  a  percentage  out  of  the  herd. 
The  steers  being  nicely  graded,  the  buyer  can  examine  each 
lot,  and  make  his  estimate  to  within  a  very  narrow  margin  of 
of  their  killing  weight.  Steers  are  rarely  held  until  four  years 
old,  the  majority  being  disposed  of  between  2J  and  3J  years, 


ARGENTINA 


91 


and  no  effort  is  spared  to  arrive  at  early  maturity.  In  many 
instances  the  cows  as  they  calve  are  drafted  from  the  dry 
cows  to  give  the  calves  a  better  chance,  and  again  the  cows 
with  steer  calves  are  drafted  from  those  with  heifer  calves, 
and  the  former  are  given  the  best  paddocks  to  help  them 
along. 

The  steer  calves  are  dehorned  and  castrated  on  most  well- 
managed  places  within  the  first  two  months  from  birth.  On 
some  properties  they  are  yarded  to  do  this,  but  it  is  mostly 


A  POINT  OF  "FREEZER"  STORES  READY  FOR  TRANSPORT,  ARGENTINA 

done  in  the  paddocks,  the.  calves  being  caught  with  the  lasso. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  almost  all  the  properties  have  no  other 
means  of  watering  but  troughs  filled  from  wells,  dehorning  is 
of  great  benefit  to  the  steers,  as  they  do  not  knock  each  other 
about  or  take  up  much  space  at  the  trough  while  watering  ; 
furthermore,  as  almost  always  stock  are  trucked  when  passing 
from  one  property  to  another,  if  any  considerable  distance 
apart,  or  to  market,  the  knocking  about  in  the  trucks  is  mini- 
mised. The  frigorificos  find  that  there  is  a  very  much  larger 
percentage  of  bruised  meat  from  a  train-load  of  horned  steers 
compared  with  those  that  have  been  dehorned. 


92 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  -FUTURE 


Dehorning,  though  a  cruel  business  if  left  until  the  cattle 
have  attained  a  considerable  growth  of  horn,  is  quite  a  light 
operation  if  done  while  the  calf  is  young.  The  most  popular 
method  seems  to  be  to  cut  out  the  button  with  a  half  or  three- 
quarter  inch  gouge  and  rub  on  a  little  stick  caustic.  When 
the  beast  has  a  large  horn,  several  varieties  of  dehorning  im- 
plements are  in  vogue,  including  a  saw,  all  more  or  less  bar- 
barous in  use  and  effect. 


1.  CHAMPION  SHORTHORN  BULL,  QUILMES  COLLYNIE  5'ni,  3  years  old.  Owned  by 
Sr.  Leonardo  Pereyra,  San  Juan.  Won  Shorthorn  Society's  Cup,  MacLennan 
Cup,  and  Amos  Cruickshank  Cup  (Group  of  5!).  Sold  for  £2187. 

The  Herefords  of  Entre  Rios  are  run  on  poorer  quality  land, 
or  land  which  is  more  suitable  for  them,  owing  to  their  hardy 
nature  and  resistance  to  disease.  The  paddocks  on  these 
properties  for  the  most  part  are  larger  than  on  the  better 
country,  otherwise  the  Herefords  are  treated  much  the  same 
as  Shorthorns,  with  the  exception  that  dehorning  is  not  so 
generally  practised.  Entre  Rios,  as  its  name  implies,  has 
many  streams,  consequently  dehorning  is  not  necessary  to 
prevent  knocking  about  while  watering,  as  on  alfalfa  camps. 


ARGENTINA 


93 


Branding  is  generally  done  in  the  yard  in  much  the  same 
way  as  it  is  done  in  Australia,  but  rather  more  roughly  and 
more  slowly. 

Cattle  drafting  in  the  yard  is  done  through  a  race,  similar 
to  an  Australian  sheep  race  on  a  large  scale,  the  men  working 
the  cattle  on  horseback  in  the  yard,  the  only  footmen  being 
the  drafter  at  the  gate  and  a  man  or  two  on  the  platform  out- 
side the  race  keeping  the  cattle  running. 


2.  CHAMPION  SHORTHORN  Cow,  ASCOTT  VALENTINE,  4  years  old.  Owned  by 
Sr.  Pedro  T.  Pages,  La  Josephina.  Won  the  A.  de  Barry  and  Co.  Cup,  and 
Family  Group  Prize  (with  two  calves). 

No  stock-whips  are  used  with  the  cattle,  but  each  man  has 
a  short-handled  riding  whip  with  a  lash  of  mw  gregnjncje  about 
1  ft.  long  and  1J  in.  wide,  with  which  he  gives  the  cattle  a 
flip  when  opportunity  occurs.  Apart  from  this,  the  cattle 
•are  handled  very  noisily  and  roughly.  They  are  knocked 
about  a  lot  by  being  driven  too  fast,  droving  as  used  to  be 
known  in  Australia  being  unknown  in  this  country.  One 
notion  that  exists  is  that  if  cattle  are  given  a  gallop  occasion- 
ally once  or  twice  a  week,  that  is,  chased  round  until  they  are 


94  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

red-hot,  they  put  on  condition  more  quickly.  Many  English- 
men managing  there  have  adopted  that  notion  also.  Its  effect 
on  a  lot  of  soft  steers  feeding  on  green  juicy  alfalfa  may  be 
imagined,  but  the  cattle  do  not  suffer  from  it  as  much  as  one 
would  expect,  partly  because  they  are  accustomed  to  being 
driven  very  fast,  and  it  does  not  make  them  restless.  When 
he  has  cattle  to  drive,  the  average  estancia  peon,  as  the 
stockman  is  called,  is  in  a  great  hurry  apparently,  but 
that  is  the  only  time,  for  he  is  a  leisurely  customer  as 
a  general  rule. 

Inoculating  or  vaccinating  for  the  numerous  diseases 
gives  a  considerable  amount  of  work.  Vaccination  against 
mancha  (black  leg)  in  calves  is  done  almost  everywhere  at 
branding  time,  and  there  are  numerous  other  diseases  to  guard 
against  ;  consequently  the  appliances  for  this  class  of  work 
are  very  complete  on  every  up-to-date  place,  including  dips 
for  dipping  scabby  cattle  and  those  from  tick-infested  districts. 

The  preparation  of  stock  for  shows  has  also  attained  great 
perfection.  All  steers  are  stall-fed  and  haltered,  and  as  none 
of  them  are  more  than  four  years  old  at  the  most,  they  are 
forced  very  extensively.  The  prizes  are  usually  for  classes, 
according  to  age,  from  twelve  months  upwards.  In  the 
preparation  of  the  younger  stock,  calves  are  forced  from  two 
months  old,  steers  of  ten  and  eleven  months  sometimes  getting 
the  milk  from  three  or  four  cows,  in  addition  to  all  kinds  of 
artificial  foods. 

The  criollo  cattle  run  on  the  poor  camps  to  the  west  and 
north.  Perhaps  they  may  be  said  to  be  hardy,  as  they  can 
certainly  live  in  lower  condition  for  a  long  time  than  any 
other  breed  of  cattle,  but  they  are  very  difficult  to  put  con- 
dition on,  no  matter  how  good  the  feed,-  nor  do  they  ever  carry 
a  great  quantity  of  flesh,  though  they  are  nice  meat  when  fat, 
not  hard  and  tough  like  the  native  cattle  of  South  Africa. 
They  are  great  walkers,  and  can  walk  as  fast  as  an  ordinary 
horse  ;  it  is  no  uncommon  feat  for  a  mob  of  these  cattle  to  be 
driven  150  miles  in  three  days.  As  is  to  be  expected,  they  are 
ill-shapen  animals,  never  attain  much  weight,  are  of  all 
colours,  and  with  a  great  growth  of  horn.  Latterly,  they  have 
been  in  great  demand  for  canning  purposes,  as  the  flesh  has 


AEGENTINA 


95 


very  little  fat.     These  cattle  are  chiefly  run  on  unimproved 
camps,  and  are  very  roughly  treated  in  every  way. 

Beef -making  in  Argentina  is  almost  exclusively  a  grazing 
business,  but  it  is  no  longer  on  the  open  range  basis  (gays 
Mr.  C.  F.  Curtis  in  The  Breeders'  Gazette,  Chicago).  "  It  is 
more  of  a  farm  pasture  business,  but  the  pastures  are  very 
large.  Few  of  the  cattle  seen  at  the  packing  plants  have  ever 
tasted  grain.  The  greater  part  of  the  cattle  as  they  come  to 


3.  CHAMPION  HEREFORD  BULL,  CAMERONIAN  27TH,  3  years  old.  Owned  by  Sr. 
Celedonio  Peredo,  Villa  Maria.  Won  the  Hereford  Breeders'  Cup,  Conjunto 
Prize  (with  two  others),  Leonardo  Pereyra  Cup,  Cipriano  J.  Quesada  Cup, 
Hereford  Herd  Book  Society's  Cup,  and  Nicanor  Olivera  Cup. 

market  are  of  uniform  quality,  showing  good  breeding,  and 
carrying  plenty  of  flesh  for  good  export  beef.  They  show 
better  breeding  than  either  the  farm  cattle  or  the  range  stock 
of  any  other  country  that  is  producing  beef  on  a  large  scale. 
Most  of  the  cattle  from  the  large  estancias  are  bought  direct 
by  the  packers  or  frigorificos,  as  they  are  called.  A  represen- 
tative pf  the  packing-house  visits  the  estancias,  inspects  the 
saleable  stock,  and  reports  to  his  firm  on  the  number  of  animals, 
condition,  and  feed,  and  sends  an  estimate  of  the  average 


96  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

number  of  pounds  of  dressed  beef  per  bullock.  The  cattle  are 
bought  on  the  basis  of  this  estimate.  The  frigorifico  managers 
deal  frankly  with  the  estancia  owner,  and  tell  him  just  how 
much  beef  his  cattle  made.  The  same  buyer  sticks  to  the  one 
estancia  for  a  lifetime." 

SHORTHORNS 

Shorthorns  have  been  found  ideal  for  most  conditions  exist- 
ing in  Argentina.  The  proportions  of  cattle  that  have  been 
improved  by  grading  are  75  per  cent  Shorthorns,  15  per  cent 
Herefords,  and  still  fewer  Angus.  Of  registered  Shorthorns, 
between  75,000  and  80,000  pedigrees  have  been  inscribed  in 
their  herd-book.  Many  breeders  are  not  registering  their  in- 
ferior pedigree  animals,  placing  such  in  their  grade  herds  and 
using  them  only  for  commercial  purposes,  so  that  many  collec- 
tions of  Shorthorns  are  to  be  seen  that  are  pure-bred  or  show- 
ing a  predominance  of  characteristics  of  the  breed  where  the 
quality  is  of  high  order.  The  leading  live-stock  exhibition  is 
the  show  held  annually  in  August  by  the  Argentine  Rural 
Society  at  Palermo,  a  beautiful  park  in  Buenos  Aires.  The 
stabling  is  the  most  elaborate  to  be  seen  at  any  .show  in  the 
world.  The  judging  is  done  during  two  days  prior  to  the 
inauguration  programme.  The  Shorthorn  cattle  classes  are 
the  principal  features  of  the  Show,  and  there  is  no  other  breed 
that  compares  with  the  Shorthorn  in  number  of  entries  and 
the  average  high  quality. 

The  auction  is  really  the  main  feature  of  the  Palermo  exhi- 
bition, as  the  greater  portion  of  the  entries  of  all  breeds  of  live- 
stock are  disposed  of  at  that  time.  The  sales  usually  consume 
a  fortnight.  It  is  a  splendid  sight  to  see  classes  of  Shorthorn 
bulls,  well  filled  from  first  to  last,  and  numbering  up  to  160  in 
a  class.  One  bull,  New  Year's  Gift,  champion  at  Palermo 
recently,  brought  at  auction  £5520,  and  the  result  was  nicely 
symbolised  in  the  comments  of  the  Scotch  judge,  Mr.  Law, 
who  remarked  :  "A  guid  bull,  but  a  grand  price.  I  would  no 
mind  taking  a  dozen  like  him  back  to  Scotland." 


ARGENTINA 


97 


TlERRA   DEL   FUEGO    AND    SOUTHERN    PATAGONIA 

(By  a  Correspondent  to  The  Pastoral  Review) 

"  In  comparing  the  Argentine  with  other  countries,  one  fact 
is  often  overlooked,  viz.  the  number  of  miles  that  lie  between 
the  23rd  and  55th  degrees  of  latitude,  or,  in  plain  words,  the 
extraordinary  range  of  climate,  equalled,  I  believe,  by  no 
single  country  in  the  world  between  its  northern  and  southern 


4.  HEREFORD  Cow,  PLUM  25'ra,  2  years  old.     Owned  by  Messrs.  C.  E.  and  B. 
Duggan,  Santa  Sabina.     Won  the  P.  and  G.  Hughes'  Cup. 

boundaries.  From  the  mountains  of  Bolivia  to  the  glaciers  of 
the  Beagle  Channel,  the  land  falls  in  a  sweep  of  over  2000 
miles  with  an  average  width  of  only  500  miles.  Thus,  by  nature 
of  its  formation,  the  country  is  assured  against  a  total  loss  of 
its  products  in  any  one  year.  It  would  be  more  than  a  coin- 
cidence if  the  sugar  and  hardwoods  of  the  north,  the  linseed, 
wheat,  and  alfalfa  lands  that  support  the  immense  herds  at 
the  centre,  the  mineral  and  wine  industry  of  the  Cordillera, 
and  the  pastoral  wealth  of  the  south  should  simultaneously 
fall  on  bad  times.  This  explains  the  conflicting  accounts 


98  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

brought  back  by  different  settlers,  and  also  in  a  measure 
reveals  the  secret  of  Argentina's  steady  advance. 

"  The  Argentine  constitution  provides  for  certain  provinces, 
which  are  distinct  from  the  so-called  territories.  The  former 
are  supposed  to  be  self-governing.  They  have  the  full  right 
of  internal  management  and  a  legislative  body  of  their  own. 
The  territories  are  under  the  direct  control  of  the  central 
National  Government,  which  appoints  to  them  their  military 
governors  and  civil  judges.  For  this  additional  reason  it  is 
difficult  to  generalise  concerning  Argentina. 

"  The  first  settlers  of  modern  times  came  to  Patagonia  from 
the  Falkland  Islands.  These  outlying  specks  of  a  former  con- 
tinent, luckily  for  the  Republic,  form  part  of  the  British  Em- 
pire, else  to-day  the  plains  of  Patagonia  might  have  remained 
as  in  the  time  of  Darwin,  peopled  but  by  vast  herds  of  guanaco 
and  the  scattered  tents  of  some  roving  Indians.  The  islands 
are  pre-eminently  adapted  for  the  breeding  of  sheep,  and  it  is 
calculated  that  at  the  present  time  over  2,000,000  head  graze 
on  the  short,  wind-swept  pastures.  Eighteen  years  ago  the 
British  Government  stopped  the  sale  of  fiscal  lands.  This, 
combined  with  the  large  profits  that  the  well-stocked  farms 
had  been  yielding,  induced  certain  pioneers  to  try  their  luck 
on  the  reputed  barren  mainland  of  Magellan.  The  shipment 
of  the  first  flocks  over  the  300  odd  miles  that  separate  the  island 
from  the  treacherous  coast,  was  attended  with  great  risk  and 
loss,  but  the  result  amply  justified  the  bold  venture.  In  1882 
the  lands  now  occupied  by  the  Patagonian  Sheep -farming 
Company  were  grazed  by  only  18,000  sheep.  These  Same  lands 
now  support  within  the  boundary  fences  close  on  300,000  head. 
This  total  has  been  arrived  at  with  no  further  purchase  of 
stock  than  those  necessary  to  bring  in  fresh  blood,  and  in  spite 
of  severe  winter  losses. 

'  The  first  stations  were  planted  close  to  the  entrance  of  the 
Straits,  and  land  was  rapidly  taken  up  along  the  first  and 
second  Narrows.  These  necks  of  the  sea  are  but  2  to  4  miles 
broad,  so  it  is  not  surprising,  after  the  five  years  necessary  to 
get  the  new  stations  into  working  order  had  passed,  to  find 
sheep  being  shipped  over  to  the  fertile  shores  of  the  "  Tierra 
Del,"  as  it  is  dubbed  with  true  Anglo-Saxon  brevity.  The 


ARGENTINA  99 

pastures  here  are  superior  to  those  of  the  Patagonian  coast,  on 
account  of  the  unfailing  streams  of  crystal  water  that  traverse 
the  land  in  every  direction.  The  climate,  moreover,  presents 
fewer  extremes,  and  protection  is  afforded  from  the  bitter 
south-west  winds  by  the  high  ranges  of  mountains  at  the  back 
of  the  open  ground.  It  was  doubtless  the  aspect  of  these  same 
ranges,  viewed  by  the  sea  captains  cruising  along  their  southern 
shores  that  pictured  Tierra  del  Fuego  as  a  mass  of  ice-clad 


FIRST  PRIZE  FAT  SHORTHORN  BULLOCK,  ARGENTINA 

Live  Weight,  2112  Ibs.     Dead  Weight,  1519  Ibs.     Sold  for  £393 
to  Freezing  Co. 

peaks,  inhabited  only  by  the  bloodthirsty  savages  that  sat 
perched  upon  them,  anxiously  scanning  the  beach  for  ship- 
wrecked crews. 

"  The  commercial  capital  of  all  these  southern  territories  is 
Sandy  Point,  a  town  which  boasts  some  7000  inhabitants,  and 
is  situated  about  50  miles  west  of  the  second  Narrows.  Of 
Tierra  del  Fuego  Argentina  owns  but  a  small  area,  the  ground 
lying  east  of  a  line  dropped  due  south  from  Cape  Virgens  to 
the  Beagle  Channel.  Ushuaia,  the  Argentine  capital  here,  as 
well  as  the  town  of  Gallegos,  on  the  Patagonian  southern 
coast,  is  entirely  dependent  on  Sandy  Point  for  their  trade. 


100  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

"  The  better  camps  in  Tierra  del  Fuego  will  support  about 
5000  sheep  to  the  square  league  (9  square  miles),  and  have 
been  sold  at  public  auction  as  high  as  £1000  per  league.  There 
are  possibly  some  1000  miles  in  the  island  fit  for  grazing,  of 
which  much  is  yet  fiscal  land.  This  will  doubtless  be  taken  up 
as  the  country  opens  out  and  a  definite  settlement  is  made 
with  regard  to  the  Indian  question. 

"  Half-way  up  the  Patagonian  coast  is  a  deep  indent  bearing 
the  name  of  the  Gulf  of  San  Jeorge.  The  46th  parallel  of  lati- 
tude, piercing  its  centre,  runs  across  a  high  barren  tableland, 
to  where  Lake  Buenos  Aires,  one  of  the  largest  of  the  newly 
discovered  Andean  chain,  shows  its  70  miles  of  sparkling  blue 
among  the  foothills  of  the  Cordillera.  This  line  marks  a  dis- 
tinct zone,  the  land  to  the  south  being  exposed  to  colder 
winds  and  having  a  heavier  rainfall  than  that  to  the  north. 
From  Cape  Virgens  another  line,  drawn  in  somewhat  irregular 
fashion  to  where  the  Pacific  has  pierced  the  Andes  at  Last 
Hope  Inlet  (site  of  the  famous  Mylodon  Cave),  gives  the  Chilean 
boundary  to  the  south.  Between  these  two  boundaries  is  the 
territory  known  as  Santa  Cruz,  the  most  extensive  of  all  the 
national  territories,  as  it  is  also  the  least  settled,  with  an  area 
of  10,159  square  miles  and  a  total  population  of  about  2000 
persons. 

"  Between  Rio  Gallegos,  the  first  river  flowing  into  the 
Atlantic  north  of  the  Straits,  and  Sandy  Point,  lie  what  are 
reputed  some  of  the  best  sheep  camps  at  Patagonia.  In  a 
country  so  little  known  and  of  such  great  extent  as  that 
comprised  under  this  title,  it  is  as  well  to  receive  such  a  state- 
ment with  caution,  though  it  may  well  be  that  owing  to  longer 
settlement  their  possibilities  have  been  more  thoroughly  ex- 
ploited than  those  of  remoter  districts. 

"  The  lands  on  the  coast  are  generally  accounted  the  most 
valuable,  as  the  climate  is  tempered  Iby  the  sea  breeze,  while 
economy  in  freighting  has  also  to  be  considered. 

"  The  alluvial  soil  on  the  surface  reaches  a  scant  6  in.,  and 
overlies  a  foot  of  stiff  boulder  clay.  Below  this  come  the 
endless  beds  of  marl,  sand,  and  gravel,  which  have  caused  the 
well-known  tablelands  to  be  the  subject  of  so  much  puzzled 
controversy  in  learned  circles. 


ARGENTINA^''' 


101 


"  The  first  sheep  brought  to  the  mainland  by  the  Falk- 
landers  were  hardy  Shropshires,  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
Merino,  a  type  that  was  speedily  modified,  before  the  settlers 
stretched  the  seemingly  limitless  plains.  The  problem  given 
fchem  was  to  convert  their  grasses  in  the  shortest  possible  time 
into  mutton  and  wool.  To  this  end  larger  breeds  were  intro- 
duced, principally  Lincoln  and  Romney  Marsh,  and  it  is  from 
this  last-named  strain  that  the  majority  of  Patagonian  wools 
are  clipped  to-day. 


SHEEP  IN  PATAGONIA 

"  On  these  higher  pampas  of  the  tablelands  the  soil  is  worn 
perilously  thin,  small  patches  of  grass  alternating  with  a  sur- 
face of  pure  gravel  and  useless  scrub,  and  Nature's  warm  pro- 
vision of  wool  grew  coarse  and  luxuriant  in  the  teeth  of  the 
blustering  winds  that  swept  across  them.  The  newer  breeds 
of  sheep  imported  by  the  settlers  strode  joyfully  patch 
to  patch,  picking  out  the  softer  grasses,  and  from  one  long- 
legged  generation  to  another  they  waxed  fat  and  kicked. 

"The  farmers  of  Southern  Patagonia  and  Tierra  del  Fuego 
are  mostly  hardy  Scotch,  practical  Englishmen,  or  New 
Zealanders,  as,  by  the  way,  are  most  of  their  shepherds  and 
hands.  The  Argentine  and  Chilean  peon  have  given  but  poor 


102  tHF  WO&Lft'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


results  in  the  south,  and  a  traveller  may  ride  from  Santa  Cruz 
to  Sandy  Point  and  hear  no  word  but  English,  with,  perhaps, 
a  slight  smattering  of  German.  As  a  consequence,  business  is 
conducted  on  the  uncompromising  basis  of  pounds,  shillings, 
and  pence,  the  national  paper-money  being  solely  a  medium 
of  exchange.  The  keynote  of  life  in  Argentina's  farthest  south 
is  independence,  not  to  say  isolation.  It  is  a  rawly  new  country, 
even  its  very  formation  is  geologically  unfinished,  and  it  is  too 
big  for  any  man  to  interfere  with  his  neighbour,  to  fight  him 
or  to  help  him.  The  settler  is  launched  upon  the  dreary  leagues 
with  his  flock  of  sheep,  his  horse,  and  his  faithful  dogs.  Whether 
he  be  man  enough  to  win  out  will  depend  here,  more  perhaps 
than  in  any  other  civilised  land,  upon  himself  alone. 

"If  the  question  were  suddenly  put  to  them,  '  What  sort  of 
a  country  is  Argentina  ?  '  ninety-nine  out  of  a  hundred  men 
would  reply  that  it  was  a  level,  treeless  plain,  adding  as  an 
afterthought  that  it  extends  half-way  up  the  ridge  of  the 
Andes,  separating  it  from  Chile.  But  in  reality  four-fifths  of 
the  big  Republic  is  covered  by  (1)  high  mountains  and  their 
broken  foothills  ;  (2)  abrupt  tablelands  ;  (3)  scrub  and  forest. 
The  remaining  20  per  cent  is  the  true  pampa. 

"  The  mistake  is,  after  all,  but  a  natural  one,  for  up  to 
thirty  years  ago  the  pampas  of  the  Plate  coast  comprised  all 
that  the  settler  of  that  day  knew,  or  cared  to  know,  concern- 
ing the  country.  He  had  pitched  his  camp  as  near  to  Buenos 
Aires  as  possible,  having  an  eye  to  cheap  freights  and  a  good 
rainfall,  while  at  the  same  time  he  kept  in  touch  with  the 
political  and  trading  capital.  We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  forty  years  ago  the  Indian  camps  were  pitched  within 
fifty  miles  of  the  town.  Whilst  these  gentry  were  being  driven 
back,  the  hard  grass  on  his  farm  gave  way  to  soft  meadows, 
and  as  their  stocking  capacity  increased,  so  did  his  yearly 
balance-sheet  show  a  better  return.  The  land  behind  him  to 
the  west,  was  dry  and  sandy,  and  to  have  refined  its  coarse 
grasses  by  the  simple  process  of  grazing  would  have  occupied 
many  a  weary  and  wasted  year.  So  our  pioneer  stuck  to  the 
coast,  and  when  they  spoke  to  him  of  the  'outside  camps,' 
he  shook  his  head,  and  said  he  was  all  right  where  he 
was.  J 


ARGENTINA  105 

"  What  is  the  pampa  was  in  former  ages  covered  by  a  body 
of  water,  now  commonly  known  as  the  Pampean  Sea.  The 
flood  stretched  up  to  and  round  the  Cordoba  range  standing 
in  the  middle  of  the  Republic  ;  in  the  south  it  reached  to  the 
tablelands  of  Patagonia;  north  to  where  the  slopes  of  the 
Cordillera  incline  to  the  watershed  of  the  Parana.  The  for- 
mation of  the  plain  marks  the  different  currents  that  directed 
the  receding  waters.  We  find  sand  collected  by  erosion  of  the 
mountain  chains  ;  vegetable  silt  carried  down  by  torrential 
rivers  from  a  tropic  interior,  mixed  with  the  fossil  deposits  of 
a  former  ocean  bed.  The  general  upheaval  caused  the  waters 
co  retire  gradually  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Andes,  the 
outlet  of  those  subterranean  forces  which  are  still  continuing 
their  gigantic  work,  albeit  in  a  more  deliberate  and  less  marked 
degree. 

"If  we  examine  the  surface  of  the  land  we  shall  find  that 
although  in  certain  tracts  lying  between  the  Cordova  and  the 
Andes  the  sandy  formation  resembles  that  of  the  central 
pampas,  yet  it  conceals  rounded  foothills  of  barren  stone, 
which  make  stream  and  reservoir  irrigation  the  only  solution 
of  the  water  question.  Wherever  we  go  north  to  higher  ground 
we  find  a  forest  which,  from  its  stunted  outposts  on  the  sandy 
plains,  closes  and  thickens  to  the  impenetrable  groves  of  the 
Argentine  Chaco.  Again,  skirting  down  the  coast  from  the 
broad  delta  to  the  Parana,  we  find  that  the  porous  sand  has 
been  mixed  with,  and  overlaid  by,  an  increasing  thickness  of 
alluvial,  packed  by  the  rains  to  a  grazing  ground  of  almost 
unparalleled  richness.  So  none  of  these  are  the  lands  lor  which 
we  seek. 

"  Take  now  a  rough  line  200  miles  long  between  the  cities 
of  Cordoba  and  Rosario.  Drop  further  a  400-mile  perpendicu- 
lar from  Rosario  due  south  towards  Bahia  Blanca,  leaving 
outside  it  all  the  rounded  coastline  of  the  Queen  province. 
Complete  the  figure  by  a  southern  boundary  that  roughly 
parallels  the  Rio  Colorado,  and  on  the  west  skirts  the  detached 
spurs  of  the  ancient  Cordoba  range.  We  have  now  80,000 
square  miles,  or,  roughly,  10,000  square  leagues  of  the  true 
central  pampas,  the  '  outside  camps  '  of  the  coast  belt.  Our 
parallelogram  is  not  a  very  exact  one.  We  must  bulge  it  here, 


106  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

and  cut  off  a  corner  there  ;  for  in  the  Argentina  they  are  not 
used  to  be  bounded  by  straight  rules,  geometrical  or  otherwise. 
But  if  the  surface  shades  from  a  6-in.  alluvial  to  a  faintly  tinged 
sand  ;  if  the  subsoil  to  100  yards  depth  is  a  sandy  marl  mixed 
with  lumps  of  freelime  that  soak  up  the  uncertain  streams 
venturing  from  the  hills  before  they  can  catch  sight  of  the 
low-lying  coast  ;  if  the  rainfall  is  between  20  and  25  in.  ;  if 
as  close  as  6  ft.,  and  not  more  than  40  ft.,  below  the  roots  of 
the  wiry  pampa  grass  the  water  comes  in  strata,  brackish,  and 
in  some  parts  undrinkably  bitter  by  reason  of  the  lime-impreg- 
nated soil  through  which  it  has  filtered  ;  if,  finally,  there  is  no 
rock,  nor  pebble,  nor  any  vestige  of  the  stone  age  larger  than 
a  grain  of  sand — by  all  these  tokens  we  may  know  that  we  are 
in  the  true  alfalfa  land . 

"  Twenty-five  years  ago  alfalfa  was  only  grown  on  the  more 
progressive  estancias,  and  even  then  in  paddocks  rarely  ex- 
ceeding 10  to  20  acres.  The  crop  was  set  aside  for  imported 
stock,  and  for  the  benefit  of  such  home-grown  animals  as  were 
deemed  good  enough  to  send  up  to  the  annual  sales  at  the 
capital.  It  was  stated  that  grazing  killed  out  the  plant,  and, 
in  view  of  the  high  cost  of  establishing  it,  estancieros  wasted 
year  after  year  in  cropping  a  worn-out  and  unprofitable  patch. 
The  necessity  of  finding  a  drought-resisting  forage  in  the 
warmer,  sandier  backblocks,  where  the  summer  rainfall  was 
too  scanty  to  keep  up  tender  grasses,  induced  a  more  enlight- 
ened farmer  to  give  the  plant  a  trial.  From  the  result  of 
that  successful  experiment  we  may  date  the  opening  up  of 
the  central  pampas. 

"  These  plains  in  the  natural  state  will  support  on  their  sun- 
burnt tufts  of  grass  a  maximum  of  500  head  of  cattle  or  2000 
sheep  per  square  league  (6400  acres).  The  same  ground  laid 
down  in  four  or  five  paddocks  of  alfalfa  will  maintain  all  the 
year  round,  and  turn  off  in  good  shape  2000  head  of  cattle,  in 
addition  to  5000  sheep.  That  is  to  say,  the  introduction  of 
this  unequalled  forage  plant  has  raised  the  possible  production 
of  these  pampas  from  5,000,000  cattle,  or  20,000,000  sheep,  to* 
20,000,000  cattle  and  100,000,000  sheep — an  increase  of  800 
per  cent. 

"  The  yield  of  an  acre  of  alfalfa  if  cropped  may  be  safely 


ARGENTINA  107 

placed  at  two  tons  of  hay,  or  20  tons  of  ensilage,  per  annum. 
The  process  of  ntaking  ensilage  is  as  yet  very  little  practised 
in  Argentina  in  spite  of  the  excellent  results  it  yields.  Large 
fields  cut  for  hay,  which  might  be  utilised  in  this  manner,  are 
left  to  rot  owing  to  an  unexpected  shower.  If  the  two  opera- 
tions were  carried  on  side  by  side,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
summer  yield  of  two  tons  would  be  augmented  by  at  least 
five  tons  ensilage  per  acre.  The  total  yield  for  one  league 
(which  does  not  by  any  means  represent  the  maximum  yield 
in  a  good  season)  then  becomes  12,000  tons  hay  and  30,000 
tons  ensilage  per  square  league.  There  is  left  a  sufficiency  of 
short  feed  to  support  two  sheep  to  the  acre  during  the  six 
remaining  winter  months. 

"  The  foregoing  figures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  growth  of 
green  stuff  that  a  bountiful  Nature  puts  at  the  disposal  of  the 
farmer  in  this  region  in  an  average  year.  Of  the  most  ap-  ~\ 
proved  methods  of  converting  this  food  supply  into  mutton, 
wool,  and  beef,  I  have  no  space  to  treat.  Local  conditions 
and  a  consideration  of  individual  ways  and  means  must  always 
be  set  before  any  '  counsel  of  perfection.'  I  only  give  it  here 
to  show  what  are  the  capabilities  of  the  alfalfa  region  if  com- 
petition should  ever  drive  the  easygoing  estanciero  of  to-day 
to  the  more  intensive  farming  practised  in  less  favoured  parts 
of  the  globe. 

"  I  give  a  rough  summary  of  the  chief  points  to  be  regarded 
in  the  establishment  of  an  alfalfa  estancia  :— - 

"  1.  The  plant  should,  if  possible,  be  laid  down  in  a  district 
which  will  ensure  the  owner  a  return  on  his  money  while  the 
ground  is  being  broken  up,  i.e.  he  should  not  settle  too  far 
outside.  On  the  camps,  within  a  day's  carting  of  a  station, 
his  only  indispensable  outlay  will  be  that  of  fencing  and 
alfalfa  seed,  which  is  at  once  returned  to  him  in  the  increased 
value  of  his  property. 

"  2.  If  grazed  with  judgment,  the  plant  will  last  indefinitely. 
I  have  seen  paddocks  that  were  over  fifty  years  old.  Disking 
will  often  renew  an  apparently  worn-out  paddock. 

"3.  As  the  habit  of  the  plant  is  to  renew  its  sprouts  directly 
through  the  crown,  it  will  die  out  if  continually  grazed  during 
its  growing  season  by  close-feeding  stock,  such  as  sheep.  In 


108  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

this  case  the  land  will  still  have  been  greatly  benefited.  At  a 
distance  of  5  ft.  below  the  surface  of  a  five-year-old  alfalfa 
patch  there  are  in  the  space  of  one  square  foot  from  ten  to 
thirty  roots  reaching  directly  to  the  surface,  and  averaging 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  addition  to  this  thorough 
subsoiling,  large  quantities  of  ash  and  free  nitrogen,  which  the 
plant  has  the  property  of  storing  near  the  surface,  go  far  to 
ensure  a  successful  after-crop  of  cereals.  It  is  probable  that 
in  many  cases  a  five  or  seven  years'  ley  of  this  kind  would 
be  more  profitable  to  the  farmer  than  the  policy  of  nursing  his 
paddocks. 

"  4.  After  the  land  is  laid  down  to  alfalfa,  the  surface  strata 
of  water  will  drop  from  4  ft.  to  10  ft.  below  its  original  height 
in  the  wells,  owing  to  the  demands  made  on  it  by  the  penetrating 
roots.  This  fact  will  go  far  to  reclaim  low-lying  and  mosquito- 
infested  grounds.  The  water  will  tend  to  improve  as  more 
alfalfa  is  laid  down,  for  the  dense  growth  of  the  plant  checks 
the  evaporation  of  the  rainfall. 

"  5.  The  seed  should  be  as  clean  as  possible,  and  grown  in 
the  neighbourhood,  in  order  that  it  may  be  well  acclimatised. 
It  is  more  important,  and  much  more  economical,  to  work  the 
ground  thoroughly  at  the  time  of  sowing  the  seed  than  to  sow 
a  heavier  quantity  of  seed  in  badly  prepared  ground.  During 
its  first  season  the  alfalfa  should  be  lightly  stocked,  and,  if 
possible,  mown. 

"  I  have  met  with  more  prosperity,  and  found  the  country 
opening  up  faster,  in  the  alfalfa  district  than  in  any  other 
throughout  Argentina.  Yet  it  must  not  be  supposed  that 
estancia  business  here  is  devoid  of  drawbacks.  Chief  of  these 
in  many  parts,  and  especially  throughout  the  southern  parts 
of  Cordoba,  is  the  question  of  water  supply,  which,  though 
abundant,  is  often  so  undrinkably  bitter  that  it  will  not  be 
approached  even  by  the  cattle.  Where  this  is  the  case,  it  is 
the  custom  to  make  wide,  shallow  wells,  which  to  some  extent 
catch  the  surface  drainage.  Again,  the  wind  that  blows  in- 
cessantly all  and  every  day,  save  for  a  short  breathing  space  in 
early  winter,  brings  with  it  an  invariable  accompaniment  of 
dust,  flies,  and  discomfort,  which  constitutes  a  very  serious 
factor  in  home  life  on  a  small  ranch.  The  planting  of  trees 


ARGENTINA  109 

and  turf  will  afford  a  partial  relief,  but  these  nuisances  will 
continue,  in  a  more  or  less  degree,  as  long  as  the  pampa  remains 
pampa. 

"  Animals  are  liable  to  loss  from  bloat  if  fed  carelessly  on  the 
rank  growth  during  springtime,  and  their  meat  is  pronounced 
by  butchers  to  be  less  attractive  than  that  of  stock  fattened  on 
natural  grass  pastures.  Furthermore,  unless  money  has  been 
freely  invested  in  storing  the  summer  growth,  an  estanciero 
may  find  himself  in  a  very  serious  quandary  at  the  first  touch 
of  winter.  Standing  feed  that  would  have  supported  1000 
head  of  cattle  will  barely  suffice  for  200  after  a  few  nights' 
hard  frost.  The  stock  must  be  smartly  handled  during  the 
summer  season  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the  paddocks  at 
their  point  of  maximum  nutrition,  i.e.  just  before  the  flower- 
ing stage  of  the  plant,  and  when  it  is  eaten  bare  the  stock 
should  be  taken  off  at  once  in  order  to  allow  the  plant  to 
sprout  again  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  A  natural  corollary 
to  this  rule  is  that  it  is  impossible  to  have  too  many  paddocks 
on  an  alfalfa  farm,  and  fencing  means  a  heavy  outlay  on  an 
item  which  is  constantly  deteriorating  in  value.  If  the  home 
stock  is  not  sufficient  to  eat  down  the  summer  growth,  it 
should  be  cut  at  once,  or  fresh  stock  purchased,  for  in  a  fort- 
night more  the  standing  crop  will  have  lost  40  per  cent  of  its 
feeding  value,  and  in  another  month  it  will  have  altogether 
vanished,  leaving  no  profit,  and  retarding  the  growth  of  its 
successor.  The  estanciero  must,  therefore,  reserve  at  least 
30  per  cent  of  the  capital  at  his  disposal  for  emergencies,  wrhich 
are  certain  to  arise  at  the  shortest  notice,  and  which  will  only 
admit  of  a  ready-money  solution.  It  is  this  reserve  fund  which 
will  probably  make  the  difference  between  handsome  profits 
and  none  at  all. 

"  Previous  remarks  will  have  made  it  clear  tha.t  in  the  region 
of  which  we  have  been  treating  agriculture  is  dependent  for 
its  ultimate  success  on  the  planting  and  cultivation  of  alfalfa. 
Cereal  crops,  however,  form  a  large  proportion  of  the  annual 
product  and  wealth  of  the  district. 


110  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

THE  ARGENTINE  MESOPOTAMIA 

"  The  watershed  of  the  River  Plate  basin  is  collected  from 
three  sources,  to  wit  : — 

"  (1)  The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  which  from  latitude 
25  deg.  in  N.W.  Argentina  rapidly  widens  to  its  maximum  at 
the  Bolivian  '  massif  '  in  latitude  15  deg.,  where  it  almost 
touches  ;  (2)  the  central  highlands  of  Brazil,  dividing  the 
Amazon  and  the  River  Plate  systems;  and,  finally,  (3)  the 
coast  range  of  Brazil,  which  starts  between  the  towns  of  Bahia 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  also  in  the  latitude  15  deg.,  and  terminates 
in  the  rounded  foothills  of  Uruguay. 

"  The  Brazilian  highlands,  as  they  lie  sprawling  over  the 
centre  of  the  South  American  map,  may  be  likened  to  an  ill- 
formed  kite.  The  head,  pointing  to  the  Amazon,  is  fringed  by 
the  affluents  of  that  inland  sea.  The  lower  sides  are  stiffened 
by  mountain  ranges,  that  acquire  the  occasional  dignity  of 
5000  ft.  As  the  tail  of  the  kite,  some  600  miles  long,  passes 
southward  through  Paraguay,  this  height  drops  steadily  to 
1000  ft.  At  this  altitude  the  range  halts  finally  on  the  northern 
boundary  of  Argentina,  overlooking  the  network  of  swamps 
and  lazy  streams  that  gives  its  name  to  the  province  of  Cor- 
rientes. 

"  In  the  wide  valley  between  the  Andes  and  the  western 
slopes  of  this  range  flows  the  river  Paraguay.  Between  the 
east  of  the  same  and  the  hills  of  the  Atlantic  coast  lies  the 
course  of  the  Parana.  Not  the  plain  Parana  of  the  south, 
but  known  here  in  its  upper  channels  as  the  Paranahyba,  or, 
more  generally  and  simply,  the  '  Alto  Parana.' 

"  It  would  have  greatly  simplified  the  geography  of  all  this 
watershed  if  the  Parana  had  been  able  to  keep  to  the  eastern 
side  on  which  it  originally  started.  It  would  then  have  en- 
tered the  Plate  estuary  by  the  present  bed  of  the  Uruguay, 
which  would  in  its  turn  have  figured  simply  as  one  of  the  tribu- 
taries entering  the  great  river  from  the  Brazilian  coast  range. 
But  just  north  of  the  spot  where  their  junction  would  have 
taken  place,  a  spur  of  hills  juts  out,  forming  a  right  angle, 
and  almost  joining  up  with  the  Paraguayan  highlands — the 
tail  of  the  kite.  Now,  in  its  hurried  upper  course,  the  Parana 


ARGENTINA  111 

has  carved  for  itself  a  deep  bed  in  the  soft,  red  sandstone. 
But  here,  in  the  south,  its  banks  have  broadened,  and  it  has 
lost  much  of  its  old  impetuosity.  It  cannot,  as  in  the  far-off 
falls  of  Guayra,  burst  its  way  through  the  obstacle  to  pour  in 
a  straight  flood  ever  southwards.  So  at  the  south-east  corner 
of  Paraguay  it  is  forced  to  swerve  sharply  to  the  west,  making 
a  200-mile  boundary  for  the  north  of  Corrientes.  Some  100 
miles  past  the  bend  the  river  crosses  the  last  vestige  of  the 
hills  in  a  short  rapid  at  Itati  (the  '  many  rocks  '),  which  pro- 
hibit navigation  on  the  Alto  Parana  for  all  vessels  drawing 
more  than  3J  ft.  of  water. 

"  The  Paraguay  basin  has  a  character  entirely  distinct  from 
that  of  its  rival.  It  runs  for  the  greater  part  in  a  path  recon- 
quered from  the  ocean  rather  than  a  bed  carved  out  by  running 
stream.  At  its  headquarters,  the  lonely  lagoon -morass  of 
Xarayes,  over  2000  miles  from  the  bustling  Argentine  capital, 
its  height  is  calculated  at  only  700  ft.  above  sea-level.  In 
time  of  flood  both  the  main  stream  and  its  tributaries  over- 
flow their  low-lying  banks  to  the  extent  of  many  hundreds 
of  square  miles.  Of  all  these  tributaries  the  greatest  now 
advances  on  it.  Just  above  Corrientes  the  Alto  Parana  merges 
in,  and  swallows  up  the  Paraguay  in  spite  of  its  reinforcement 
by  the  Bermejo,  whose  mouth  is  clearly  visible  from  the  town. 
Then,  assuming  the  right-of-way,  it  turns  once  more  to  the 
south,  and  enters  the  Plate  as  the  Parana  proper  ('  the  Mother 
of  the  Ocean  ').  So  it  has  come  about  that  the  Paraguay  has 
lost  its  pride  of  place  as  one  of  the  world's  greatest  waterways, 
whilst  the  Uruguay  rises  into  sudden  importance  as  it  takes 
up  the  abandoned  eastern  route.  When  we  read  that  the 
Plate  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay, 
the  statement  is  true  in  fact,  but  not  in  proportion.  The  latter 
river  can  boast  in  all  of  but  a  thousand  miles  of  length,  whilst 
the  totals  of  the  Paraguay  and  the  Parana  together  sum  over 
4000  miles.  A  better  idea  would  be  given  if  we  read  :  '  The 
River  Plate  is  represented  in  South  America  by  Parana  and  Co.' 

"  It  has  been  necessary  to  dwell  thus  far  on  the  vagaries  of 
the  Parana  system,  inasmuch  as  they  set  a  straight  boundary 
round  the  Mesopotamia,  clearly  defining  the  lines  upon  which 
its  future  development  must  be  laid.  Its  eastern  boundary, 


112  THE   WORLD'S   MEAT  FUTURE 

the  River  Uruguay,  has  an  average  width  of  one  mile.  Three 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth  we  find  it  broken  in  a  series  of 
long,  lagoon-like  stretches,  whose  waters  pour  down  in  alter- 
nating rapids,  and  render  serious  navigation  impracticable. 
Briefly,  above  the  town  of  Concordia,  where  the  first  serious 
barrage  occurs,  the  Uruguay  is  a  glorified  trout  stream.  On 
the  northern  and  western  limit  we  overlook  the  Parana,  not, 
as  in  its  higher  reaches,  a  deep,  swift  river,  bat  a  degenerate 
Parana — a  stream  whose  width  may  be  three  or  thirty  miles, 
according  to  the  caprices  of  its  sudden  floods,  beyond  the 
scope  of  modern  engineering  to  bridge,  and  puzzling,  with  its 
shallow  channels  and  shifting  islands,  the  most  experienced 
of  river  pilots.  To  the  south  lies  the  Plate  estuary,  leading  to 
the  ocean. 

'  The  Mesopotamia  which  is  bounded  by  these  rivers  is 
really  a  peninsula,  whose  neck  in  the  N.E.  corner  is  the  terri- 
tory of  Misiones,  the  ancient  stronghold  of  the  Jesuit  power 
in  the  Southern  Americas.  On  this  side  the  red  sandstone  hills 
fringing  on  Corrientes  have  as  yet  resisted  the  encroachment 
of  the  tropic  forest,  which  commences  a  few  miles  further 
north.  Here  is  the  road  by  which  the  cattle  from  the  uplands 
of  Brazil  find  their  way  to  the  south — a  highway  whose  im- 
portance will  be  increasingly  felt  as  trade  relations  between 
the  two  countries  are  drawn  closer. 

"  There  is  little  doubt  that  at  a  former  period  the  ocean 
extended  far  further  into  the  interior,  when  the  continental 
waters  discharged  at  what  is  now  the  junction  of  the  Alto 
Parana,  the  Paraguay,  and  the  Bermejo.  From  this  spot 
southwards  the  land  rises.  Corrientes  is  gently  undulating 
and  traversed  by  numerous  streams  that  wander  confusedly 
through  marshy  bottoms.  Entre  Rios,  set  upon  the  bar  of 
that  ancient  watershed,  rises  in  ridges  of  an  argillaceous  for- 
mation, running  nearly  due  north  and  south.  Both  provinces 
are  covered  with  a  rich  cap  of  modern  alluvium,  save  for  a 
strip  along  the  banks  of  the  Uruguay,  where  the  red  foothills 
come  down  as  far  as  the  bar  of  Concordia,  before  mentioned. 

"  Although  it  is  only  the  north  of  Corrientes  that  crosses 
the  line  of  the  tropics,  life  in  this  province  frankly  crosses  the 
semi-tropical  stage.  This  is  due  to  its  low  general  altitude, 


ARGENTINA  113 

combined  with  the  near  presence  of  large  bodies  of  fresh  water, 
which  convert  it  during  the  summer  months  into  a  gigantic 
forcing  house.  The  climate  at  this  season  is  one  of  enervating 
humidity.  Maize,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas,  and  mandioca 
solve  the  easy  problem  of  existence  for  a  shiftless  lower  class. 
Those  who  have  higher  ambitions  may  undertake  the  cultiva- 
tion of  a  tobacco  patch,  selling  a  poor  quality  product  at 
equivalent  prices.  Orange  groves  are  numerous  ;  the  diffi- 
culty lies  in  procuring  suitable  labour  to  harvest  and  convey 
the  golden  fruit  to  market.  Peanuts  will  produce  abundantly, 
and  the  crop  is  readily  bought  up  by  the  various  oil  mills 
established  on  the  banks  of  the  Parana. 

."  The  real  Corrientes  industry  (the  word  is  somewhat  mis- 
leading) is  stock-raising,  and  that  of  a  most  primitive  kind. 
Sheep  are  relegated  to  a  second  place.  The  dependence  of  the 
estanciero  is  on  his  cattle — the  red-coloured,  long-horned  kind, 
that  have  become  as  famous  as  their  brothers  cf  early  Texas, 
and  meet  with  as  little  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  city  butcher. 
They  have  won  their  place  on  the  principle  of  the  survival  of 
the  fittest,  for  they  live  and  nourish  in  places  where  orthodox 
breeds  die  of  red  water,  Texas  fever,  and  similar  weaknesses. 
They  may  be  taken  on  forced  marches  through  drought- 
stricken  regions,  and  their  skeletons  will  still  survive.  They 
can  wander  belly-deep  into  the  great  leechy  morasses,  and 
browse  contentedly  on  the  floating  water-grass.  Herdsmen 
freely  admit  that  their  bloated  appearance  after  such  a  diet 
is  not  the  sign  of  a  firm  fatness,  bat  hitherto  that  has  been 
deemed  of  but  little  moment.  For  at  the  long  last  the  merit 
of  the  Correntino  cattle  lies  in  their  numbers ;  they  are  found 
on  the  savannahs  of  Paraguay,  on  the  uplands  of  Brazil  and 
Rio  Grande.  From  all  points  they  converge  to  where,  on  the 
lower  reaches  of  the  big  rivers,  the  factories  (over  a  dozen  in 
number)  lie  in  wait  for  them.  In  Southern  Entre  Rios,  across 
the  river  in  the  '  Banda  Oriental ' — to  give  to  the  Republic  of 
Uruguay  its  old  Portuguese  title — wherever  the  carcases  are 
there  the  saladeros  are  gathered  together.  In  them  the  steers 
are  chopped  into  jerked  meat  for  Brazil  and  Cuba,  discrimi- 
nated into  Paysandu  tongues,  or  boiled  down  to  reappear  later 
as  Bovril  and  Liebig's  Extract  on  the  dining-tables  of  effete 


114  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Europeans.  The  export  freezing  trade  of  the  Plate  does  not 
touch  this  class  of  stock  ;  it  is  the  roughage  of  the  Republic, 
and  prices  rule  accordingly.  From  10  dollars  to  15  dollars 
gold  is  the  common  quotation  for  fat  steers  or  cows.  The 
number  of  animals  treated  by  the  Entre  Rios  factories  is  very 
large,  while  the  total  that  vanishes  by  way  of  the  Mesopotamia 
every  year  into  the  choppers'  yards  and  the  melting  pots  is 
over  half  a  million. 

"  From  the  extreme  N.E.  corner  stretching  towards  the 
centre  of  the  Entreriano  Peninsula  lies  one  of  the  unknown 
and  wholly  unexplored  portions  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
The  great  lagoon  of  '  shining  waters,'  the  '  Ubera,'  lays  under 
tribute  directly  or  indirectly  some  2000  square  miles  of  land, 
although  the  source  of  the  rivers  Corrientes  and  Merinay,  its 
level  seldom  alters,  nor  is  it  sensibly  affected  by  prolonged 
droughts.  Its  neighbourhood  is  heralded  by  an  endless  suc- 
cession of  '  tacurus  '  (red  ant  heaps),  which  stand  from  3  to 
6  ft.  above  the  ground,  or  water,  as  the  case  may  be.  When 
dry,  the  whole  landscape  much  resembles  a  gigantic  Chinese 
graveyard,  while  the  holes  under  these  heaps  are  the  refuge 
of  innumerable  snakes.  On  the  edge  of  the  permanent  water 
grows  a  high,  almost  impenetrable,  fringe  of  rushes.  In  the 
inner  lake  the  fecundity  of  aquatic  growth  under  a  tropical 
sun  has  led  to  the  formation  of  islands,  that  change  their  shape 
and  station  as  the  capricious  winds  and  floods  direct.  These 
floating  '  terra  firma '  harbour,  amongst  other  inmates,  the 
gigantic  anaconda,  a  water -snake,  that  attains  over  20  ft.  in 
length,  and  in  girth  the  thickness  of  a  man's  body.  Here  it 
lies,  as  the  natives  firmly  believe,  waiting  to  devour  the  hap- 
less gaucho,  horse,  and  all,  who  shall  wander  lost  in  the  marshy 
labyrinths. 

"  It  is  easy  from  our  seat  in  the  railway  car  (but  a  few  years 
ago  on  its  first  journey  through  the  province)  to  wave  aside 
such  idle  tales  with  the  smoke  of  an  after-dinner  cigar,  but  the 
half -Indian  peasant  of  Corrientes  is  but  a  step  removed  from 
the  serf  of  the  Spanish  occupation.  Modern  sophistry  will 
leave  him  unconvinced  until  modern  engineering  drains  the 
fertile  basin,  and  his  superstitions  vanish  with  the  miasma  of 
the  rush -grown  swamps. 


ARGENTINA  115 

"  Of  the  two  provinces,  that  more  favoured,  both  by  its  own 
resources  and  by  reason  of  its  unique  position  on  the  Plate,  is 
undoubtedly  Entre  Rios.  Its  rolling  lands  are  composed  of  a 
stiff,  black  alluvium,  overlying  a  subsoil  well  adapted  to  the 
planting  of  trees.  There  is  little  trace  here  of  the  sand  which 
makes  it  so  easy  for  the  farmer  to  break  up  the  flat  pampas  of 
Buenos  Aires.  The  limestone  deposits  near  the  town  of  Parana, 
previous  to  the  discovery  of  the  quarries  of  Cordoba,  set  up 
kilns  which  supplied  the  whole  Republic.  About  one -third  of 
the  country  is  covered  with  open  belts  of  hardwood,  in  which 
the  Nandubay  predominates.  This  tree  grows  in  the  likeness 
of  those  straight-stalked,  bunch-headed  parodies  that  are 
palmed  off  on  confiding  childhood  in  Noah's  arks — a  design 
which  Providence  has  manifestly  created  for  the  purpose  of 
fence-posts.  As  the  land  has  no  companion  hills  from  which 
to  tap  its  water  supply,  surface  springs  are  rare,  but  between 
the  rolling  downs  run  frequent  watercourses.  Banking  these 
gullies  to  catch  the  surface  drainage  is  the  commonest  and 
easiest  system  of  providing  water  to  the  stock,  but  it  is  a  broken 
reed  in  time  of  drought,  and  much  of  the  mortality  during 
recent  years  can  be  traced  to  this  cause.  Well-water  may  be 
found  at  depths  varying  from  10  to  50  yards,  according  to 
locality. 

"  The  near  outlet  of  the  province  to  the  sea-board,  its  dower 
of  fair  pastures,  and  its  equable  climate,  have  marked  it  from 
the  earliest  days  of  Spanish  occupation  as  a  desirable  posses- 
sion ;  yet  this  very  fact  has  retarded  its  advance.  Happy  is 
the  country  without  a  history.  Throughout  the  turbulent 
growth  of  the  young  Republic  Entre  Rios  has  been  a  hotbed 
of  political  unrest — the  chosen  stumping  ground  of  revolu- 
tionists. It  was  by  way  of  the  Mesopotamia  that  troops  were 
led  to  fight  Brazil  in  the  early  twenties,  and  Paraguay  in  the 
seventies,  of  last  century  ;  it  was  across  this  province  that  the 
irrepressible  patriots  marched  who  struck  for  the  independence 
of  Uruguay,  and  it  is  here  that  discontented  refugees  from  that 
small  adjoining  State  have  ever  found  sympathy  and  a  safe 
refuge.  Here  it  was  finally  that  General  Urquiza  upheld 
throughout  a  whole  decade  the  standard  of  revolt  that  led  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  dictator  Rosas,  after  the  latter  had  ruled 


116  THE   WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 

the  land  with  blood  and  iron  for  over  twenty  years.  And  these 
have  been  but  the  main  episodes  in  the  drama. 

"  In  Entre  Rios  wheat-sowing  is  not,  as  in  the  Pampa  region, 
a  mere  preliminary  to  laying  down  alfalfa.  That  plant  has 
here  a  life  of  three  to  six  years,  but  it  does  not  attain  the 
phenomenal  growth  of  the  west,  nor,  in  the  absence  of  near 
surface  strata  of  water,  is  it  so  capable  of  withstanding  a  pro- 
longed drought.  Agriculture  here  stands  purely  on  its  own 
general  merits.  The  lesson  to  be  learned  by  the  colonists  is 
that  farming  for  cereals  alone  is  next-of-kin  to  pitch-and-toss, 
and  that  stock  give  the  most  sure  and  profitable  returns  when 
combined  with  intelligent  agriculture.  This  fact  has  been 
sufficiently  demonstrated  by  long  years  of  bitter  experience  in 
our  own  colonies  and  by  the  farmers  of  the  United  States. 

"  The-  Province  to-day  carries  3,000,000  head  of  cattle,  and 
although  most  of  them,  as  in  Corrientes,  are  native  bred,  they 
contain  a  growing  leaven  of  finer  breeds,  notably  Shorthorn, 
which  are  rapidly  improving  the  mass.  The  diseases  to  which 
these  are  subject  are  the  same  as  in  the  other  northern  and 
western  provinces,  on  which  I  have  already  touched.  Car- 
buncle is  less  prevalent  than  in  Cordoba,  and  apparently  does 
not  get  such  a  permanent  hold  on  the  ground.  On  the  other 
hand,  Texas  fever  is  even  worse  than  in  Santa  Fe,  on  account 
of  the  herds  of  cattle  which  are  constantly  marching  south- 
wards through  the  tick-infested  marshes  of  Corrientes.  The 
remedies  for  the  first  consist,  as  elsewhere,  in  inoculation  by 
Pasteur's  lymph  ;  for  the  second,  timely  and  frequent  dippings, 
to  which  should  be  added  the  burning  of  all  dry,  rush -grown 
bottoms  at  their  periods  of  maximum  infestation  by  the  tick. 

"  The  quality  of  the  native-bred  horses  of  Entre  Rios  is 
famous  throughout  the  Plate.  In  proof  thereof,  they  have 
furnished  in  former  years  most  of  the  famous  '  criollo  '  polo 
ponies  and  to-day  give  one  of  the  best  foundations  for  crossing 
with  a  faster  strain. 

"  Tracts  of  ground  held  by  the  large  landowners  are  being 
broken  up  for  agriculture  in  two  ways.  By  the  first  the 
colonist  works  the  ground  on  shares  with  the  owner  (who 
usually  has  to  advance  the  money  for  preliminary  expenses), 
leaving  the  ground  when  exhausted  and  moving  on  to  fresh. 


ARGENTINA  117 

This  system,  with  its  tendency  to  high  expenditure  and 
slovenly  work,  has  little  to  recommend  it,  yet  it  is  largely 
practised.  By  the  second  method  the  land  is  thrown  open  to 
purchase  in  instalments  covering  a  period  of  four  or  more 
years,  in  order  that  the  buyer  may,  if  possible,  purchase  his 
ground  from  the  profits  made  out  of  it  after  taking  possession. 
The  longer  the  term  granted,  the  higher  the  price.  It  follows 
that  both  the  owner  and  the  purchaser  therefore  look  with  a 
very  lenient  eye  on  the  linseed  gamble.  Yet  their  ignorance 
of  the  best  principles  of  mixed  farming  can  scarcely  be  blamed 
on  the  hard-working  Italians,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  agri- 
cultural class.  Themselves  but  a  step  removed  from  the 
working  peon,  they  are  naturally  disinclined  to  venture  out 
of  a  tried,  though  worn-out,  routine.  In  no  part  of  Argentina, 
is  the  want  more  keenly  felt  of  agricultural  stations  under 
systematic  Government  control. 

"  It  says  much  for  a  faith  in  the  future  of  Entre  Rios  that  the 
Jewish  Colonisation  Society  have  sunk  here  one-third  of  the 
millions  of  the  late  Baron  Hirsch  in  colonies  on  which  to  estab- 
lish their  countrymen.  The  character  of  the  Russian  or  Polish 
Jew  is  not  often  a  favourable  one  on  which  to  build  up  a 
thriving  pastoral  centre,  but  the  colonists  are  rapidly  adapting 
themselves  to  their  new  surroundings.  Co-operative  dairy- 
farming  has  been  started  with  marked  success.  This  growing 
industry  has  the  cordial  assistance  of  the  railway  local  manage- 
ment, which  by  liberal  concessions  has  made  every  effort  to 
encourage  these  and  other  settlers  in  their  plucky  uphill  fight 
for  prosperity. 

"  Let  us  recapitulate.  In  the  north  of  Corrientes  we  find 
cheap  breeding  camps,  which  improve  rapidly  on  being  grazed 
by  horned  stock,  but  are  unsuitable  for  sheep.  The  border- 
line of  the  provinces  is  a  halting-place,  where  stock  may  be 
interchanged  and  acclimatised.  Finally,  on  the  rich  lands 
near  the  delta,  sheep -breeding,  general  agriculture,  and  the 
fattening  of  northern  cattle  may  be  successfully  combined. 
Here  are  all  the  advantages  of  a  near  cash  market  and  cheap 
freights  for  produce,  an  ocean  port  for  wool  and  grain,  sala- 
deros  for  rough  stock,  and  the  great  freezing  factories  at  hand 
to  absorb  unlimited  quantities  of  finer-bred  steers  and  wethers. 


118  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

44  There  is  much  hope  for  the  future  of  Entre  Rios  and  her 
sister  lauds.  Argentine  Governors  are  generally  largo  land- 
holders, and  sometimes  practical  estancieros  as  well.  In  these 
provinces  they  are  rapidly  beginning  to  understand  that  their 
welfare  is  bound  up  with  a  steady  development  of  the  country's 
resources  rather  than  in  the  arena  of  politics.  In  the  near 
future  also,  the  contending  railroads  must  perforce  cease 
from  troubling,  consolidating  and  extending  their  systems  to 
that  mutual  benefit  of  colonist  and  shareholder  for  which  they 
were  originally  created.  Then,  from  the  Alto  Parana,  from  the 
rich  basin  of  which  Asuncion  in  Paraguay  has  long  been  the 
centre,  most  of  the  rich  tropical  products  and  all  the  quick 
traffic  will  abandon  the  lazy  rivers,  with  their  hazardous  bars 
and  twisting  channels,  and  come  swiftly  across  the  rich  penin- 
sula. The  long-horned  cattle  will  whirl  towards  the  south  on 
through  trucks  with  inches  of  extra  fat  upon  their  ribs,  and  the 
lolling  peasant  who  views  the  inspiring  sight  will  cast  away  his 
home-made  cigarette  and  get  a  firm  hold  on  the  foreign  hoe. 

"  We  are  treating  of  Spanish,  and,  indeed,  to  some  extent. 
of  Indian-Spanish  America  :  yet  the  prophecy  is  not  far  off 
fulfilment.  For  the  land,  which  for  over  a  century  was  a  bone 
of  contention  between  the  keen-nosed  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
explorers,  whose  fertility  received  the  hall-mark  of  Jesuit 
settlement,  which  is  bounded  by  mighty  rivers,  rich  forests. 
and  fertile  uplands,  and  while  facing  the  ocean,  holds  also  the 
key  to  the  main  gateway  of  the  South  American  continent. 
can  never  fail  of  a  generous  share  in  the  tide  of  progress, 
which  is  steadily  carrying  forward  the  best  interests  of  the 
Argentine  Republic. 

THE  BACK  COUNTRY 

"  It  is  highly  advisable  for  the  intending  colonist  in  Argen- 
tina to  have  a  certain  acquaintance  with  those  territories 
which  lie  outside  of  the  strictly  pastoral  zone.  They  furnish 
even  now  a  home  market  for  his  produce,  and  as  the  country 
opens  up  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  certain  of  these  districts 
will  become  of  much  greater  commercial  importance  tha-n  is 
at  present  imagined. 

"First  in  the  list   we  will  place  the  '  Onm  rhaco/  a,  term 


ARGENTINA  119 

which,  meaning  literally  a  thicket,  is  applied  generally  to  all 
the  tract  of  forest  land  south  of  the  Pilcomayo  River  lying 
between  the  Andean  foothills  and  the  Parana.  Its  area  is 
close  on  9000  square  miles  (23,000,000  hectares,  to  be  exact), 
of  which  a  bare  tenth  has  passed  into  private  hands,  and  of  this, 
again,  but  a  fractional  part  exploited.  Its  formation  is  dis- 
tinct from  that  found  in  any  other  forest  of  tropic  South 
America.  A  few  inches  of  surface  alluvial  overlie  a  stiff  boulder 
clay,  from  10  to  20  ft.  thick,  which  in  its  turn  rests  upon  a 
substratum  of  pure  sand.  All  well  water  must  be  obtained 
from  this  sand,  the  depth  at  which  it  occurs  varying  in  inverse 
proportion  to  the  distance  of  the  bore  from  the  banks  of  the 
great  parent  river. 

"  The  timber  in  the  Chaco  is  not  continuous.  It  occurs  in 
long,  narrow  strips,  which  take  a  north  and  south  direction, 
and  are  interspersed  with  open  ground  in  the  proportion  of, 
perhaps,  40  per  cent  forest  to  60  per  cent  of  prairie.  These 
glades  are,  as  a  rule,  covered  with  a  rough  pampa  grass,  but 
where  the  clay  lies  directly  on  the  surface  there  is  only  swamp, 
worthless  cactus,  and  thorny  undergrowth.  The  whole  for- 
mation irresistibly  suggests  a  previous  inundation,  in  which 
the  parts  now  occupied  by  the  forest  have  stood  out  above 
the  subsiding  waters.  So  strong  is  the  resemblance  that  tho 
belts  of  timber  are  known  locally  as  '  isletas,'  or  islands. 

"  The  value  of  these  islands  lies  in  the  fact  that  their  woods 
are  composed  for  the  greater  part  of  '  quebracho,'  a  red  hard- 
wood, which  also  contains  a  valuable  tanning  extract.  On 
this  account  it  resists  indefinitely  the  action  of  water  or  dry 
rot,  and  is  much  used  for  fence  posts  and  general  construction 
work.  It  makes  the  finest  railway  sleeper  in  the  world, 
weighing  nearly  as  much  as  lignum  vitae,  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  1.27,  compared  to  1.33  of  the  latter.  It  thus  adds 
greatly  to  the  solidity  of  a  road-bed,  especially  during  the 
trials  of  construction. 

"  A  league  of  good  Chaco  ground  will  yield  10,000  tons  of 
quebracho  logs.  Thus  its  value  depends  almost  entirely  on 
the  cost  of  timber  transport  to  the  nearest  station.  The  limit 
of  profitable  cartage  does  not  extend  beyond  20  miles  from  the 
railway,  beyond  which  the  country  is  practically  unknown. 


120  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

"  It  will  be  seen  that  there  is  good  business  in  the  Chaco,  for 
the  value  of  the  timber  covers  both  the  initial  cost  of  the  land 
and  the  expense  of  settling  and  stocking  it  with  cattle.  On 
the  other  hand,  settlers  earn  their  profits  under  conditions 
which  are  the  reverse  of  tempting.  The  hard,  uncompromising 
nature  of  the  quebracho  itself  gives  the  keynote  to  the  whole 
region.  Over  more  than  half  the  country  the  Indians,  numbered 
roughly  at  20,000,  are  still  sufficiently  hostile  to  make  it 
necessary  for  exploiting  parties  to  omit  no  precautions. 

"  Nevertheless,  the  Chaco  is  being  steadily  invaded.  As  the 
hardwoods  are  cut  down  the  underbrush  is  fired,  and  its  place 
is  taken  by  coarse  rushes  and  grass.  This  in  its  turn  is  replaced 
by  softer  herbage,  which  follows  on  the  hoofs  of  the  pioneer 
cattle  herds.  Six  or  eight  years  suffice  to  convert  dense  forest 
land  into  moderate  pasture.  At  no  very  distant  date  the  Chaco 
will  be  shorn  of  its  dreaded  forests,  and  the  cattle-raising  in- 
dustry, which  is  now  but  a  means  of  feeding  the  lumber- 
workers,  will  grow  till  the  district  becomes  a  reserve  from  which 
the  alfalfa  camps  of  North  Santa  Fe  will  draw  their  supply  of 
horned  stock  for  fattening.  The  present  beginnings  of  this 
trade  are  responsible  for  the  scourge  of  ticks  and  tick  fever 
which  infests  the  Santa  Fe  farms.  The  Chaco  shares  with 
Corrientes  the  bad  eminence  of  being  the  natural  home  of  this 
pest,  and  neglect  of  this  and  similar  dangers  to  the  pastoral 
wealth  of  the  Republic  constitutes  one  of  the  gravest  charges 
against  its  rulers. 

"  Let  us  turn  our  eyes  elsewhere — to  the  foothills  of  the 
Andes  that  lie  west  of  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Aires.  The 
moisture-bearing  winds,  which  bring  verdure  by  a  thousand 
rushing  streams  to  the  valleys  of  the  Patagonian  and  pre- 
Cordillera,  are  here  diverted  by  the  increasing  height  and 
solidity  of  the  great  divide.  North  of  Lake  Nahuel  Huapi, 
the  eastern  slopes  present  for  over  600  miles  a  barren  and  almost 
rainless  tract.  It  is  true  that  the  soil  is  fertile  under  irrigation, 
but  the  patches  which  have  so  far  been  reclaimed,  with  the 
help  of  the  hill-streams,  stand  out  as  small  oases  in  a  barren 
wilderness  of  sand,  scrub,  and  rock. 

"  This  is  the  wine  district  of  Argentina,  and  in  the  year  1900 
it  produced  125,076,954  litres.  The  industry  is  chiefly  centred 


ARGENTINA  121 

in  the  town  of  Mendoza,  lying  opposite  Valparaiso,  in  Chile, 
with  the  Uspallata  pass  holding  open  the  gate  between  them. 

"  In  the  broken  country  that  lies  directly  north  of  Mendoza 
are  located  the  best  paying  mines  as  yet  discovered  in  the 
Republic.  Gold  is  in  most  cases  too  thinly  scattered  in  the 
hard  rock  to  admit  of  profitable  working,  but  there  is  plenty 
of  copper,  silver,  and  lead.  Mining  ventures  in  Argentina  have 
so  far  met  with  poor  fortune  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  trans- 
port and  the  situation  of  the  lodes  in  places  where  there  is 
neither  water  nor  fuel  within  reach.  Moreover,  there  is  a 
general  impression  in  Buenos  Aires  that  a  league  of  alfalfa 
and  a  herd  of  good  dairy  cows  is  better  than  any  gold 
mine.  They  are  right.  For  mining  magnates  there  are  few 
or  none  ;  but  estancieros  prosper  in  the  land,  and  multiply 
exceedingly. 

"  All  along  where  these  foothills  merge  into  the  great  central 
pampas  an  increased  rainfall  permits  the  growth  of  coarse 
grass.  Well  water  here  is  too  far  below  the  surface  for  even 
an  alfalfa  root  to  reach  it,  and  the  scanty  herbage  only  affords 
grazing  for  a  limited  number  of  poor  native  stock.  Fencing 
is  a  heavy  item  on  the  scattered,  barren  ranges,  nor  is  there 
much  inducement  for  the  farmer  to  settle  on  them,  when  the 
fertile  lowlands  He  so  close  to  hand.  Goats  abound,  however, 
and  this  region  accounts  for  the  majority  of  the  "  poor  man's 
cows,"  of  which  there  are  8,000,000  scattered  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  Argentina.  The  rider  hurrying  through 
the  higher  scrub  of  North  Cordoba  is  often  surprised  by  a  bleat 
from  overhead.  A  second  glance  will  discover  a  point  of  these 
accommodating  animals  browsing  contentedly  amongst  the 
tree-tops,  whence  they  gaze  down  serenely  upon  the  parched 
earth. 

"  On  the  road  between  Mendoza  and  Valparaiso  lies  the 
famous  natural  '  Bridge  of  the  Inca.'  This  is  the  highway  of 
the  cattle  transport  to  Chili,  which  is,  however,  sensibly 
diminishing.  Owing  to  the  rough  shale-strewn  roads,  which 
it  is  impossible  to  avoid  when  crossing  the  pass,  all  cattle  are 
shod  before  the  ascent  begins.  This  difficult  task  is  carried 
through  with  the  ease  of  much  practice.  The  animals  are 
lassoed,  and  thrown  on  their  broad  backs.  Their  hoofs  are 


122  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

secured  to  four  separate  stakes,  and  almost  before  they  are 
aware  of  it  the  novel  footgear  is  firmly  fixed  for  the  week's 
journey.  Every  peon  who  works  in  the  cattle  trade  in  this 
district  is  a  rough  farrier,  and  carries  in  his  roll  the  tools  of 
the  trade. 

"  When  we  reach  latitude  26  deg.,  abreast  of  the  province 
of  Tucuman,  the  Andean  chain  grows  yet  bolder.  On  the 
Pacific  slope  it  preserves  a  fair  parallel  to  the  ocean,  but  it 
encroaches  steadily  on  the  Argentine  side,  throwing  out  fresh 
spurs  constantly,  till  it  reaches  its  maximum  in  the  Bolivian 
'  massif,'  which  rounds  off  the  N.W.  boundary  of  the  Republic. 

"  Earthquakes  are  felt  more  on  the  Chilian  than  on  the 
Argentine  side.  The  tops  of  these  mountain  ranges  have 
from  the  date  of  their  volcanic  biith  been  abandoned  to  the 
mercy  of  fierce  air  currents  and  torrential  rains.  Denudation 
under  these  conditions  has  gathered  at  their  base,  and  in  the 
cloven  valleys  there  are  pockets  of  soil  of  great  fertility, 
covered  for  the  most  part  with  dense  forest,  and  suitable  for 
the  growth  of  sub-tropical  and  tropical  produce.  The  province 
of  Tucuman,  called  the  '  Garden  of  the  Republic,'  is  such  a 
pocket,  situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Aconquija  spur. 

"  It  would  be  unfair  to  conclude  our  review  of  the  Republic 
without  a  glance  at  Misiones,  the  smallest  of  the  national 
territories,  which  lies  huddled  between  the  upper  reaches  of 
the  Uruguay  and  Parana,  at  the  point  where  their  waters  most 
nearly  approach  each  other.  Connecting  the  Mesopotamia 
with  the  Brazilian  highlands,  there  is  no  portion  of  the  Re- 
public which  has  been  more  written  about,  and  less  visited. 
Three  hundred  years  ago  the  Jesuits  recognised  the  value  of 
this  unique  position  at  the  navigable  limit  of  the  two  great 
rivers.  In  1732,  previous  to  the  decree  that  broke  their  power, 
the  pioneer  monks  had  brought  under  their  control  upwards 
of  200,000  Indians,  collected  in  the  thirty  settlements  from 
which  Misiones  takes  its  name  to-day.  The  ridge,  which  runs 
through  the  centre  of  the  territory  to  the  coast  plateau  of 
Brazil,  is  covered  with  extensive  pine  forests  (Araucaria 
Brazilensis),  and  amongst  them  are  scattered  clumps  of  '  yerba 
mate,'  the  universal  brew  that  takes  the  place  of  tea  to  the 
working  man  in  the  Plate.  The  lower  part  of  the  land,  which 


ARGENTINA  123 

borders  the  rivers,  is  covered  with  valuable  hardwoods.  But 
the  stock-growing  instinct  of  the  latter-day  Argentine  colonist 
is  opposed  to  tropical  pioneering,  so  in  spite  of  the  glowing 
description  of  scientific  enthusiasts,  the  greater  part  of  Misiones 
is  not  only  uninhabited,  but  even  unexplored. 

"  The  falls  on  the  Iguazu  River,  dividing  the  north  of 
Misiones  from  Brazil,  are  of  greater  height  and  extent  than 
those  of  Niagara,  though  their  volume  is  not  so  great  or  so 
constant.  The  following  are  the  measured  dimensions  : 
Height  of  Niagara,  150  to  164  ft.  ;  width,  2260  ft.  ;  height  of 
Iguazu,  200  to  210  ft.  ;  width,  9000  ft.  (nearly). 

"  The  factor  which  must  influence  the  colonist  in  his  choice 
of  a  site  more  than  any  other  in  Argentina  is  that  of  transport, 
and  transport  here  means  the  railroad.  The  only  navigable 
rivers  tap  a  tropical  zone,  which  is  less  suited  for  white  colonists 
than  the  healthy  south.  From  the  Plate  to  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  Bahia  Blanca  is  the  only  port  worthy  of  the  name. 
On  the  railroads,  therefore,  lies  the  burden  of  the  country's 
business,  and  their  successful  management  is  vital  to  its 
prosperity. 

"  Settlers  are  often  tempted  by  the  low  price  of  rich  lands 
into  purchasing  farms  far  beyond  the  railway  zone.  This  is  a 
good  investment  for  the  capitalist,  but  not  for  the  working 
farmer.  Against  the  cheapness  of  the  land  must  be  placed  the 
cost  of  transport,  which  remains  as  a  constant  charge  on  the 
property,  while  the  want  of  touch  with  markets  means  the  loss 
of  many  a  good  bargain. 

"  If,  however,  he  has  elected  to  try  his  fortune  there,  the 
farmer  should  rent  land  rather  than  buy  it,  cut  his  expenses 
down  to  the  lowest  possible  limit,  and  put  all  his  money  into 
his  stock.  To  attempt  agriculture  is  unwise,  except  to  supply 
local  needs,  it  is  to  give  hostages  to  fortune,  for  a  sack  of  wheat 
cannot  walk  itself  to  market,  nor  can  it  get  out  of  the  way  of 
floods  or  drought,  as  the  farmers  in  Chubut  and  N.  Santa  Fe 
know  to  their  cost.  For  these  reasons,  cattle  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred when  possible  to  sheep,  for  while  they  give  less  profit, 
there  is  also  less  risk  of  total  loss,  and  there  is  no  point  in 
Argentina  from  which  their  own  legs  will  not  carry  them 
unaided  to  a  good  market. 


124  THE   WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 

"  To  live,  and  let  live  ;  to  know  how  to  combine  healthy 
pleasure  and  sound  business  ;  to  eschew  politics  and  law-suits  ; 
to  deal  courteously  and  justly  with  all  men — these  are  the 
lines  that  have  been  followed  by  those  of  our  countrymen 
who  have  won  for  themselves  to-day  name  and  fortune  in 
Argentina.  There  is  no  real  obstacle  to  deter  those  who  would 
follow  their  example.  In  the  bustling  marts,  or  on  the  wind- 
swept pampa,  in  the  virgin  forest,  or  beneath  the  shadow  of 
the  great  Cordillera,  there  is  room  and  to  spare  for  all.  And 
nowhere  will  an  Englishman,  be  he  home-bred  or  colonial,  meet 
with  a  heartier  welcome  than  from  those  of  his  countrymen 
whose  footsteps  have  pointed  a  path  to  the  fertile  shores  of 
the  River  Plate. 


THE  PLATE  COAST  BELT 

"  The  sheep  runs  of  Patagonia,  the  alfalfa  paddocks  of  the 
central  Pampas,  the  rich  loams  of  the  Mesopotamia — each 
zone  of  Argentina  has  its  advocates.  Yet,  whatever  success 
may  have  attended  them  in  their  own  particular  district,  none 
will  deny,  when  pressed  to  a  statement,  that  a  league  of  camp 
near  Buenos  Aires  is  worth  two  anywhere  else. 

"  Apart  from  its  importance  politically,  the  province  of 
Buenos  Aires  is,  without  doubt,  the  richest  pastoral  district 
of  its  extent  in  the  world.  The  soil  consists  of  from  2  to  3  ft. 
of  black  alluvial  top-dressing,  rendered  friable  by  an  admixture 
of  sand  and  lime,  while  below  it  comes  a  marl,  fairly  free  from 
clay,  but  forming  under  certain  conditions  into  a  hard  pan, 
locally  known  as  '  tosca.'  Running  through  this  formation, 
and  separated  by  these  beds  of  hard  pan,  are  different  strata 
of  water,  the  first  of  which  is  found  at  depths  varying  from 
20  to  70  ft.,  the  others  following  at  depths  of  perhaps  only  a 
few  yards.  As  a  rule,  well-water  found  near  the  Plate  estuary 
is  of  good  quality,  witness  the  numerous  and  flourishing 
breweries.  As  we  travel  west  into  the  Pampas,  the  influence 
of  its  vast  volume  gradually  lessens,  till  on  the  plains  that 
stand  midway  between  the  Cordilleras  and  the  coastline  the 
water  becomes  brackish,  and  at  times  undrinkably  bitter. 
This  quality  is,  without  doubt,  due  to  the  great  quantity  of 


ARGENTINA  125 

free  calcareous,  matter  which  the  soil,  formerly  an  ocean  bed, 
contains,  and  through  which  the  hill  streams  percolate  on  their 
way  to  the  ocean.  The  average  rainfall  of  the  coast  belt  is 
some  35  in.,  and  with  the  usual  interlude  of  a  short  dry  spell 
in  early  summer,  is  throughout  the  remainder  of  the  year  a 
fairly  constant  quantity. 

"  Happy  is  the  country  without  a  history.  Happy,  we  may 
add,  is  the  farm  that  has  no  scenery.  The  traveller  who  has 
no  farming  interests  soon  wearies  of  the  monotonous  fertility 
of  the  panorama  that  unfolds  itself  to  his  gaze  from  the  win- 
dows of  the  excellent  trains  that  serve  the  rich  littoral.  He 
turns  with  a  yawn  to  the  distractions  of  his  magazine,  and  his 
verdict,  delivered  later  to  inquiring  friends,  is  that  Argentina 
is  the  flattest  country  that  he  has  ever  seen.  It  may  not  be 
strict  grammar — once  a  country  is  flat  it  stays  so — but  it  is 
strict  truth.  Sheep  at  midday  loom  up  as  big  as  oxen  in  the 
refraction  that  quivers  up  from  the  hot,  unvarying  surface. 
Distances  are  deceiving  to  newcomers.  The  fence  we  start  to 
walk  out  to  appears  to  be  farther  off  than  we  expected.  That 
dark  clump,  however,  which  we  take  to  be  the  eucalyptus 
grove  shadowing  some  estancia  house  is  within  easy  riding 
distance,  for  our  horizon  is  limited  to  a  very  few  miles.  As  we 
draw  nearer  the  tree-trunks  rise  up  before  us  in  the  very 
manner  of  a  vessel's  masts  at  sea,  and  when  we  finally  dis- 
mount in  their  shade  we  see  on  the  new  horizon  around  us 
other  clumps,  hull  down.  A  colonist  could  plant  his  plough- 
share in  the  rich,  brown-black  earth  above  Rosario,  and, 
save  for  an  occasional  watercourse  and  the  eternal  wire 
fence,  draw  a  level  furrow  for  700  miles  straight  south, 
to  where  the  hills  of  Curumalan,  rising  inconsequently  out  of 
the  flat  prairies,  mark  the  neighbourhood  of  the  port  of 
Bahia  Blanca. 

"  Two  hundred  miles  above  Buenos  Aires  the  main  current 
of  the  Parana  has  scoured  a  deep  channel  at  the  foot  of  the 
tall  bluffs  that  here  bound  its  western  bank.  This  has  been  a 
good  and  sufficient  reason  for  the  growth  of  Rosario,  the  com- 
mercial centre  of  Santa  Fe  province  and  second  in  importance 
in  the  Republic. 

"  Between  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario  is  found  a  bed  of  ex- 


126  THE    WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

ceptionally  rich  alluvial  stretching  some  forty  miles  inland. 
This  is  the  pick  of  the  maize  country.  As  the  cars  whirl  along 
the  long  green  rows  come  down  to  meet  them  in  seemingly 
endless  parallels,  yielding  to  80  bushels  per  acre,  even  under 
the  rule-of-thumb  methods  to  which  the  Italian  farmer  (and 
they  are  all  Italians  here)  is  wedded. 

"  A  short  30  miles  south  of  \Buenos  Aires  is  situated  the  city 
of  La  Plata,  a  stucco  sepulchre  of  mis-spent  capital,  whose  sole 
claim  to  importance  lies  in  its  title  to  be  called  the  provincial 
capital.  The  mania  for  establishing  artificial  towns  outside  a 
radius  of  commercial  activity  furnishes  a  curious  comment  on 
the  Argentine  character. 

"  Following  the  coast  for  yet  another  50  miles,  we  come  to 
Cape  Las  Piedras,  which  marks  the  entrance  of  the  Plate 
estuary  on  the  Argentine  side,  and  is  also  the  upper  cape  of 
San  Borombon  Bay.  It  is  an  insignificant,  poor-spirited  bay 
— a  quarter  bite  from  the  side  of  a  big  apple — but  its  name  has 
a  large  significance  to  the  most  important  sheep -breeding 
dislrict  in  the  country.  The  River  Salado,  rising  at  a  point 
200  miles  directly  inland  from  Buenos  Aires,  and  resembling 
a  long  series  of  lagoons  rather  than  a  river,  halts  through  a 
series  of  imperceptible  depressions  till  it  reaches  the  inner  lip 
of  San  Borombon.  Here  it  meets  with  a  succession  of  low 
sand-dunes  thrown  up  along  the  coast  by  the  action  of  the 
tides.  After  heavy  rains  the  water  is  sufficiently  served  by 
the  narrow  outlet  of  the  river,  whose  bar  has,  moreover,  a 
constant  tendency  to  silt  up. 

"  As  the  coastline  falls  round  into  the  port  of  Bahia  Blanca, 
it  is  roughly  paralleled  by  the  scattered  outcrop  of  the  Ven- 
tana  hills  running  to  meet  those  of  Curumalan,  of  whose 
system  they  form  a  part.  The  height  nowhere  exceeds  4000 
feet,  and  on  nearing  them  their  rugged  outline  is  found  to  be 
fissured  by  numerous  fertile  valleys.  These  collect  sufficient 
moisture  to  send  down  half  a  dozen  streams  to  the  coast,  the 
longest  of  which  does  not  exceed  100  miles,  while  their  volume 
varies  in  exact  proportion  to  the  local  rainfall. 

'  The  progress  of  the  coast  belt — as  indeed  that  of  the  whole 
Republic — is  inseparably  bound  up  with  its  railway  develop- 
ment. The  sandy  shores  do  not  favour  a  sheltered  anchorage. 


ARGENTINA  127 

Between  Buenos  Aires  and  Bahia  Blanca  there  is  none  worthy 
the  name,  and  Buenos  Aires  port  itself  is  largely  artificial. 
Within  the  queen  province  every  ton  of  freight  and  every 
bucket  of  water  must  be  brought  to  its  destination  by  arti- 
ficial means.  Without  railways  and  wells,  the  pampa  would 
be  as  impossible  for  modern  settlers  as  it  was  for  the 
Indians  who  formerly  lived  on  the  fringe  of  the  great  grass 
desert,  crossing  it  only  in  times  of  stress,  and  then  in  forced 
marches. 

'  The  first  impulse  to  colonisation  was  given  in  the  year 
1856,  when  General  Mitre — Argentina's  grand  old  man — 
granted  to  the  Central  Railway  the  most  liberal  concession 
ever  accorded  in  this  country.  It  included  the  free  gift  of  a 
league  of  the  nation's  land  on  each  side  of  the  line  along  the 
total  length  of  its  construction.  The  railway,  which  was  the 
first  to  connect  the  towns  of  Buenos  Aires  and  Rosario,  formed 
a  separate  department  to  deal  with  its  real  estate,  which  it 
sold,  and  is  still  selling  in  small  lots  and  on  easy  payment 
terms  to  bona  fide  settlers.  Thus,  the  districts  through  which 
the  line  passed  were  soon  colonised.  As  an  unlooked-for  con- 
sequence, agriculture  for  over  twenty  years  was  practically 
confined  to  the  north. 

"  It  seems  nowadays  almost  incredible  that  landowners 
should  for  so  long  have  remained  ignorant  of  the  possibilities 
of  the  great  alfalfa  zone  in  the  centre,  or  that  the  finest  wheat 
farms  in  the  Republic  (those  within  the  radius  of  Bahia  Blanca) 
should  have  remained  untouched  till  a  few  years  ago.  Perhaps 
the  real  reason  lay  in  the  absence  of  any  experimental  farms. 
Landowners  in  the  Argentine  are  a  conservative  class,  and 
incline  to  a  tried  and  well-worn  routine  rather  than  to  ex- 
periment. 

"  Intensive  farming  is  practically  unknown  in  the  Plate. 
The  reason  is  that  the  safest  investment  for  a  farmer's  spare 
cash  has  hitherto  been  the  lands  around  him,  which  within 
twenty  years  have  doubled,  trebled,  and  even  quadrupled  in 
value.  While  fine  stock  may  die  and  buildings  deteriorate, 
land  has  none  of  these  drawbacks,  and  '  is  bound  to  go  up.' 
So  many  new  districts  have  been  opened  up,  and  their  pur- 
chase and  repurchase  have  absorbed  so  much  of  the  estanciero's 


128  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

money,  that  the  margin  left  for  improvements  has  been  com- 
paratively small.  The  land  tax,  or  '  contribucion  directa,' 
favours  such  speculation.  Its  percentage  on  the  value  of  pro- 
perty is  comparatively  low,  and  is  based  on  actual  rather  than 
potential  production. 

"  Although  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires  now  leads  in  the 
area  laid  down  to  agriculture  as  well  as  in  the  average  yield 
per  acre,  there  ig  no  doubt  that  for  many  years  her  main  in- 
terests will  still  continue  to  be  pastoral.  One  reason  has  already 
been  given  for  this — in  the  absence  of  agricultural  stations. 
Another  is  that  although  commercially  the  importance  of  a 
new  breed  of  wheat  may  equal  that  of  blood  stock,  stock- 
breeders on  the  Plate  coast  enjoy  many  advantages,  or,  rather, 
a  combination  of  advantages,  which  are  denied  their"  competi- 
tors elsewhere.  Few  artificial  foods  are  needed,  and  these, 
consisting  chiefly  of  maize  and  alfalfa,  are  grown  at  a  minimum 
cost.  The  grass  which  springs  up  after  the  introduction  of 
stock  to  a  new  pasture  is  extremely  rich,  while  its  growth  is 
practically  unchecked  throughout  the  year.  In  winter  the 
degree  of  cold  seldom  produces  more  than  a  slight  hoar  frost, 
but  loss  is  common  among  thin  herds  in  the  driving  south-west 
storms  that  in  early  spring  sweep  unchecked  over  the  Pampas, 
lasting  sometimes  from  three  to  five  days. 

"  The  natural  fertility  of  their  pastures  has  led  many,  I 
might  truthfully  say  the  majority,  of  the  farmers  to  risk 
fully  stocking  their  paddocks.  This,  greatly  profitable  in 
a  good  year,  is  nevertheless  equivalent  to  overstocking, 
for  a  bad  season  must  at  times  be  reckoned  with.  With 
no  reserves  to  fall  back  upon,  the  result  to  the  farmer  is  then 
disastrous." 

The  freezing  companies  are  helping  to  improve  Argentine 
live-stock.  Take  shipments  of  pure-bred  pigs,  for  instance  ; 
these  are  distributed  through  the  country  to  the  estancieros 
and  farmers  at  cost  price,  so  as  to  help  to  improve  the  present 
breed  of  pigs.  Export  of  frozen  pork  is  shortly  to  be  very 
large  from  the  country.  Another  way  the  companies  help  is 
in  the  prices  they  pay  for  champion  steers  at  the  fat-stock 
show.  This  is  done  to  encourage  the  breeders  to  go  in  for  high 
quality.  At  a  recent  show  the  champion  steer  fetched  £2190, 


ARGENTINA  129 

and  three  other  steers  £2270  each.  The  Swift  Company  bought 
116  steers  for  £21,800,  and  333  wethers  for  £2164.  This  com- 
pany has  recently  purchased  900,000  square  metres  of  land  in 
Saladillo,  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  work  on  a  huge 
frigorifico  is  in  hand.  In  fact,  new  freezing  works  are  being 
erected  in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  well  up  the  River 
Plate.  The  Government  assists  companies  of  all  kinds  to  erect 
manufactories,  by  exemption  from  import  duties  and  by 
making  other  concessions. 

The  Sociedad  Rural  Argentina  proposes  that  a  National 
Congress  should  be  held  in  which  would  be  represented  all 
the  cattle  breeders  of  the  country.  The  following  points 
are  suggested  as  being  suitable  for  consideration  at  such  a 
Congress  :  interchange  of  live-stock  with  adjoining  countries  ; 
study  regarding  the  sale  of  live-stock  produce  ;  subsidiary  in- 
dustries ;  international  exhibitions  ;  nationalisation  of  marks 
and  brands  ;  roads,  watering  stations,  and  pasturags  for  the 
trooping  of  animals  ;  woolwashing  and  textile  manufactures  ; 
the  defence  of  the  live-stock  industry  ;  forage,  sanitary  ;  ex- 
portation of  live-stock;  freights  ;  the  dairy  industry  ;  prac- 
tical live-stock  farming  schools.  It  is  hoped  that  such  a  Con- 
gress would  be  attended  by  delegations  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment and  of  the  rural  societies  throughout  the  Republic. 
Neighbouring  countries  would  also  be  asked  to  be  represented, 
in  order  to  discuss  at  special  sessions  of  the  Congress  the  four 
points  first  mentioned  in  the  above  programme. 

Summing  up  the  possibilities  of  this  wonderful  territory  of 
Argentina,  they  are  very  large,  and  Europe  can  look  to  that 
country  for  enormous  supplies,  and  probably  increased  sup- 
plies for  many  years  to  come.  Naturally,  as  the  population 
increases,  more  meat  will  be  required  locally  ;  but  there  is 
ample  room  in  the  Republic  to  increase  the  live-stock  at  a 
larger  rate  than  that  of  the  population. 

REFRIGERATOR  MOTOR  TRUCKS 

A  representative  of  a  large  cattle  estancia  in  Argentina 
recently  placed  orders  in  New  York  for  100  refrigerator  motor 
trucks  for  use  on  several  estancias.  The  motors  are  of  high 


130  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

power,  with  a  carrying  capacity  of  at  least  five  tons.  Each 
car  is  equipped  with  a  complete  refrigerating  plant,  so  that 
as  the  car  travels  it  will  keep  meats  at  a  low  temperature  for 
export  shipment.  The  Argentine  cattle  growers  plan  to  kill 
the  cattle  on  their  properties,  dress  the  beef,  load  it  in  re- 
frigerator cars,  and  so  send  it  to  the  stores  at  the  seaports 
and  ship  it  to  North  America  and  Europe.  The  estancia  above 
referred  to,  which  purchased  the  hundred  refrigerator  motor 
trucks,  is  260  miles  from  a  railroad  station.  Cattle  have 
hitherto  been  driven  afoot  from  the  property  to  the  nearest 
railroad  station  or  city,  and  there  slaughtered  and  trans- 
formed into  export  beef.  The  new  plan  will  cut  out  the  slow 
movement  of  cattle  on  foot,  and  save  much  time  and  money. 
It  will  also  open  up  new  meat  sources. 

The  Director  of  Rural  Economy  and  Statistics  of  Argentina 
recently  presented  the  following  report  to  the  Government 
and  a  statistical  return  concerning  cattle  and  the  consumption 
and  exportation  of  meat  for  the  year  1917,  with  comparative 
figures  for  the  quinquennial  period  1913-1917  :— 

Total  killings  during  1917  were  as  under  : — 


Cattle.  Sheep. 

At  Liniers  slaughterhouses        ..  ..         404,231          1,030,292          115,900 

At  meat  freezing  works,  "saladeros," 

and  meat  factories  .  .  .  .  2,496,284  2,233,896  193,383 

At  the  2356  municipal  and  private 
slaughterhouses  which  have  sup- 
plied data 1,127,624  521,999  77,041 


4,028,139         3,786,187          386,324 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  total  killings  for  the  whole  country 
it  would  be  necessary  to  ascertain  the  number  of  animals 
slaughtered  on  estancias  and  farms  for  their  own  meat 
supplies,  and  in  some  small  slaughterhouses  of  which  we 
possess  no  data.  We  endeavour,  however,  to  arrive  at  this 
total  f  gure  by  another  means,  viz.  by  taking  the  number  of 
hiaes  exported  and  utilised  in  the  country.  During  1917,  in 
round  figures,  the  number  was  5,873,000.  Compared  with 
the  ascertained  killings,  this  f  gure  shows  a  difference  of 
1,845,000,  so  that  our  statistics  regarding  killings  comprise 
over  68.5  per  cent  of  the  total. 


ARGENTINA 


131 


Cows  and  Steers 

The  proportions  of  steers  and  cows  slaughtered  at  "  frigori- 
ficos  "  and  slaughterhouses,  registered  during  the  past  seven 
years,  were  as  under  : — 

Years.                                               Steers.  Cows. 

1913 2,402,668  506,741 

1914 2,289,804  786,102 

1915 2,210,919  874,926 

1916 2,503,090  919,248 

1917..                                    .  2,803,675  1,038,918 

These  proportions  undergo  considerable  variation,  when  we 
treat  of  the  destination  of  the  animals  : — 


o/ 
/o 

17-4 
25-5 
28-3 
26-9 
27-0 


Liniers 

Total  Cows 
and  Steers. 
281,950 

(V 

/o 
of  Cows. 
43-4 

Municipal  and  private  slaughterhouses 
"  Frigorificos  " 
"jSaladeros  "  and  preserved  meat  factories  .  . 

1,070,776 
2,227,613 
262,254 

54-4 
11-6 
10-9 

Calves  are  not  included  in  these  comparative  returns,  but  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  they  only  represented  4J  per  cent  of 
the  total  of  4,028,139  indicated  above. 


Frigorificos  and  Preserved  Meat  Factories. 

The  figures  relative  to  "  frigorifico  "  killings  show  a  marked 
increase  since  1915,  although  there  have  been  fluctuations  : — 


Year. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 


Cattle. 
1,608,983 
1,588,878 
1,640,846 
2,101,550 
2,496,284 


Sheep. 
2,489,461 
2,889,164 
1,948,099 
2,646,713 
2,233,896 


Pigs. 

4,756 

13,977 

43,172 

75,592 

193,383 


By  converting  the  above  figures  into  tons,  we  arrive  at  a 
more  just  appreciation  of  their  importance  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view.  The  following  table  shows  in  tons  the  quantity 
of  meat  which  has  left  the  "  frigorificos  "  and  meat  factories 
for  export  and  for  home  consumption  : — 


Year. 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 


Beef.  N 
519,633 
511,296 
522,557 
640,148 
690,133 

Mutton 
and  Lamb. 
65,420 
73,811 
50,765 
67,638 
56,381 

Pig 
Meat. 
357 
791 
3,533 
4,534 
15,935 

Totals. 
585,410 
685,898 
576,855 
712,320 
762,449 

Beef. 
447,674 
444,533 
450,955 
584,599 
619,698 

Mutton 
and  Lamb. 
59,291 
68,582 
45,682 
62,005 
47,269 

Pig 
Meat. 

299 
2,979 
2,723 
14,335 

Totals. 
506,965 
513,414 
499,616 
649,327 
681,302 

132  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Meat  supplied  by  "  frigorificos "  for  home  consumption 
represents  approximately  12  per  cent  of  the  total  weight 
produced  at  such  establishments  ;  this  is  the  average  per- 
centage over  the  quinquennial  period  1912-1917,  but  in  1917 
there  was  an  increase  of  18,163,000  kilos,  and  during  the  first 
six  months  of  the  current  year  a  still  lurther  notable  increase 
has  taken  place. 

Exportation. 

The  following  table  shows,  in  tons,  the  quantities  of  dead 
meat  for  export  produced  by  "  frigorificos  "  and  preserved 
meat  factories  : — 

Year. 

1913  .. 

1914  .  . 

1915  .. 

1916  .. 

1917  .. 

Home  Consumption 

In  order  to  estimate  the  per  capita  consumption  of  meat  in 
the  Federal  capital,  we  take  as  a  basis  the  number  of  inhabi- 
tants as  given  in  the  municipal  statistics,  and  the  number  and 
weight  of  the  carcases  of  meat  as  reported  by  the  slaughter- 
houses at  Liniers  and  the  "  frigorificos."  The  following  is  the 
result,  showing  the  consumption  in  kilos  per  inhabitant : — 

Years. 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  consumption  of  meat  has  diminished 
considerably  since  1911,  but  the  consumption  of  100  kilos  per 
inhabitant  may  be  regarded  as  very  high  for  a  centre  of  popu- 
lation where  there  is  such  a  variety  of  foodstuffs  available  as 
in  Buenos  Aires,  and  during  a  period  when  the  cost  of  living 
has  attained  a  high  level  hitherto  unknown.  It  could  be  de- 
duced from  this  fact  that  in  Argentina  meat  is,  relatively 


Population. 
1,360,406 

Mutton 
Beef.     &  Lamb. 
125             24 

Pig 
Meat. 

7 

Totals. 
156 

1,428,042 

116 

17 

6 

139 

1,480,000 

106 

12 

7 

125 

1,584,106 

85 

12 

9 

106 

1,598,511 

85 

10 

10 

105 

1,612,825 

74 

12 

11 

97 

1,624,885 

76 

17 

7 

100 

ARGENTINA 


133 


speaking,  one  of  the  least  expensive  articles  of  food,  or  that, 
in  spite  of  everything,  the  economic  level  of  the 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  satisfactory  one. 


CATTLE  WEIGHTS  :    LIVE  AND  DEAD 

It  is  always  of  interest  to  cattlemen  to  know  how  the  dead- 
weight of  a  beast  compares  with  the  live-weight ;  therefore, 
a  few  particulars  relating  to  the  meat  yields  of  prize  animals 
recently  sold  at  the  fat -stock  show  at  Buenos  Aires  will  be  of 
interest  : — 


On  Arrival  Freez- 

On Afternoon 

Yield 

ing  Works  with- 

of Day 

of  Meat- 

Fat. 

Hides. 

out  being  Fed 

previous  to 

Cold 

or  Watered. 

Killing. 

Weight. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1850 

1950  • 

1233 

89-3 

88-2 

1910 

1975 

1286 

119 

83-7 

1850 

1960 

1252 

112-4 

79-4 

1635 

1680 

1144 

84-9 

83-8 

1725 

1815 

1163 

.  .      106-9 

79-4 

1625 

1655 

1102 

71-7 

81-6 

1725 

1755 

1128 

91-5 

83-8 

1650 

1720 

1098 

88-2 

88-2 

1300 

1365 

825 

49-6 

75 

FIRST  PRIZE  SHORTHORN  Cow,  CAIRNCOSH  JILT,  ENGLISH  ROYAL 
SHOW,  1915.     EXHIBITED  BY  MR.  W.  M.  CAZALET 


BEAZIL 

BRAZIL  extends  from  latitude  9°  south  to  30°  south.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  British,  French,  and  Dutch  Guiana, 
and  Venezuela  ;  on  the  west  by  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru, 
Bolivia  and  Paraguay  ;  on  the  south  by  Uruguay  and  Argen- 
tina ;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is 
mountainous,  with  vast  stretches  of  undulating  country 
with  wide  valleys  containing  rich  pasture.  It  covers  an  area 
of  3,292,693  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  over  23 
millions. 

According  to  statistics  published  by  the  Ministry  of  Agri- 
culture, there  exist  30,000,000  cattle,  7,000,000  horses,  3,207,000 
asses  and  mules,  10,000,000  goats,  7,500,000  sheep,  and  nearly 
18,500,000  pigs. 

The  richest  pastoral  states  are  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Minas 
Geraes,  Sao  Paulo,  Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz,  Piauhy. 

The  urgent  world  demand  for  beef  has  given  the  live-stock 
industry  of  Brazil  a  tremendous  impetus,  and  the  development 
of  live-stock  raising  and  the  packing-house  industry  will 
probably  make  great  strides  within  the  next  few  years. 

Until  recent  years  no  serious  attempts  had  been  made  by 
ranch -owners  to  improve  their  cattle  breeds  or  the  general 
conditions  of  the  grazing  lands.  Entire  lack  of  transportation 
Jtacilities  and  consequent  low. selling  prices  gave  no  stimulus 
to  the  industry.  The  completion  of  many  new  lines  of  rail- 
roads, and  the  recent  great  increase  in  the  price  of  live  cattle 
all  over  the  world,  have  given  the  greatest  impetus  to  the 
cattle  industry,  with  the  added  fact  that  more  attention  is 
being  paid  to  the  conditions  of  production  and  converting 
into  meat  products.  Until  recently  the  losses  among  cattle 
annually  were  enormous,  due  to  diseases  and  the  lack  of  proper 
attention  on  the  ranches.  Salt  is  scarce,  as  the  country  has  no 
natural  deposits,  and  this  aggravates  the  situation  in  the^case 

134 


BEAZIL  137 

of  epidemics.     Floods  in  the  lowland  section  have  also  been 
an  important  factor  in  annual  losses. 

With  the  development  of  the  railroads  of  the  State  and  the 
consequent  opening  of  easier  foreign  markets  through  Buenos 
Aires  and  Monte  Video,  and  national  markets  through  the 
ports  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Pelotas 
and  Port  Alegre,  the  cattle  industry  has  become  more  stable 
and  the  improvement  in  the  type  of  cattle  has  been  marked 
in  recent  years. 

Several  meat  companies  have  erected  works,  and  others  are 
in  course  of  erection,.  Capitalists  from  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  have  at  last  realised  what  an  enormous  and  handy 
source  of  meat  supply  is  available  in  Brazil,  and  are  now  fast 
developing  it.  The  export  trade  has  expanded  in  a  remark- 
able manner,  and  the  country  bids  fair  soon  to  become  one 
of  the  most  important  sources  of  supply.  In  1915 — the  first 
year  of  foreign  trading — the  exports  were  8000  tons  ;  in  the 
following  year  they  increased  to  33,130  tons  ;  while  in  1917 
66,450  tons  of  beef  were  shipped,  chiefly  to  the  Continent, 
for  the  Italian  and  French  armies.  The  beef  is  small  and  very 
suitable  for  those  countries. 

The  Government  has  offered  considerable  advantages  to 
breeders  of  cattle,  to  encourage  the  importation  of  live-stock. 
It  intends  also  to  facilitate  in  every  way — both  financially  and 
otherwise — the  importation  of  large  numbers  of  fir&t-class 
cattle  ;  the  import  of  as  many  as  120,000  bulls  is  contemplated 
within  the  next  few  years.  Already  many  head  of  cattle  have 
been  brought  down  from  the  United  States.  Many  have  been 
imported  from  the  Argentine,  and  60  Zebus  were  recently  im- 
ported from  India,  fetching  very  high  prices.  A  syndicate  is 
shortly  to  be  formed  to  import  cattle  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
which  is  to  be  backed  up  by  the  Government.  At  present,  it 
is  only  a  question  of  bulls  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  idea  will 
also  expand  to  include  the  importation  of  cows,  sheep  and  pigs. 

The  Government  is  willing  to  expend  also  a  large  sum  of 
money  to  help  the  local  breeders,  and  allow  free  transport  by 
rail .  How  much  more  brainy  are  the  politicians  in  this  country 
than  those  in  Australia,  where  the  stock-owner  bears  the  brunt 
of  all  the  additional  taxation  and  freight ! 


138  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Brazil  offers  a  great  and  remunerative  field  in  the  raising  of 
cattle  for  beef  and  its  many  by-products.  It  has  unlimited 
tracts  of  land  served  by  railroads,  with  plenty  of  running 
water. 

It  can  raise  cattle  from  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  in  the 
north  downward  to  the  most  southern  State — Rio  Grande  do 
Sul,  but  the  centre  of  this  great  industry  will  always  be  the 
State  of  Sao  Paulo,  not  only  for  the  fertility  of  its  soil  and 
climate,  but  also  for  its  geographical  conditions  and  railroad 
facilities.  Most  of  the  beef  produced  in  that  progressive  part 
and  its  neighbouring  States  will  have  to  be  treated  and  shipped 
to  Santos,  the  great  coffee  seaport.  Thanks  to  the  activity 
and  vision  of  the  people  of  Sao  Paulo,  the  export  of  beef  and 
its  by-products  is  free. 

A  great  many  people  in  Brazil  look  upon  beef  as  a  product 
bound  to  supersede  the  principal  staple — coffee — never  realis- 
ing that  this  product  is  bound  to  work  together  with  cattle. 
The  fertilisers  brought  out  by  the  new  industry  will  be  a 
splendid  contribution  for  the  keeping  of  the  coffee  trees  in 
better  health  and  for  longer  years. 

At  the  initiation  of  the  National  Agricultural  Society 
(Sociedade  Nacionale  de  Agricultura),  the  first  conference  on 
Brazilian  cattle  was  recently  held  in  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Among 
the  many  questions  taken  up  were  : — 

Probable  origin  of  the  different  Brazilian  breeds,  causes  of 
their  degeneration,  and  means  of  improving  them.  Mesological 
influences  on  the  various  domestic  animals  in  Brazil.  Pro- 
ductive capacity  of  Brazilian  cattle  with  reference  to  all 
modern  industries  derived  therefrom .  World  statistics,  produc- 
ing and  consuming  countries.  Study  of  the  conditions  of  the 
consuming  world  as  to  quality  and  quantity.  Production  and 
over-production,  supply  and  demand.  Tastes  of  the  consumer 
and  the  causes,  whether  permanent  or  temporary.  Direct  and 
indirect  Federal,  State,  and  municipal  assistance  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  cattle  industry  and  the  improvement  of  its 
products. 

Thorough  and  eminently  practical  courses  on  all  subjects 
relating  to  cattle  and  subordinate  industries.  Formation  of  a 
corps  of  veterinaries,  bacteriological  inspectors,  and  necessary 


BRAZIL  139 

experts,  to  be  attached  to  all  establishments  exploiting  the 
numerous  secondary  industries. 

Commercial  transactions  in  cattle  and  products  ;  large  and 
small  companies  ;  co-operation.  Necessity  to  create  standards 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  consumer.  Elements 
that  must  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  location  of  estab- 
lishments for  the  manufacture  of  and  commerce  in  cattle 
products  ;  application  of  natural  forces  in  the  operation  of 
plants,  shipping  ports,  docks  and  railroad  stations. 

Selection  of  different  systems  for  the  complete  utilisation 
of  all  by-products.  Means  of  safeguarding  the  products  for 
consumption  ;  their  preservation  in  the  plants,  during  trans- 
portation and  at  the  distributing  centres.  Preservation  of  the 
various  products  by  artificial  cold,  preserving  substances,  heat, 
evaporation,  etc.  Special  study  of  all  methods  of  refrigeration. 

Organisation  of  transportation  service  with  a  view  to  speed, 
comfort  of  animals,  preservation  of  products,  sanitary  require- 
ments, and  low  freight  rates.  Direct  Government  supervision 
over  transportation,  from  both  industrial  and  sanitary  points 
of  view. 

Study  of  all  cattle  diseases — local  and  imported— their  pre- 
vention and  cure.  How  to  avoid  propagation  and  to  bring 
about  the  extinction  of  animals,  parasites,  and  plants  in- 
jurious to  cattle.  Improvements  of  pastures,  extension  of 
alfalfa  culture,  value  of  agricultural  sub-products  as  food  for 
cattle. 

Also  the  best  methods  <of  raising  full-bred  saddle,  army  and 
truck  horses,  mules,  donkeys,  sheep,  goats,  pigs,  and  fowls  ; 
how  to  improve  the  breeds,  and  a  detailed  study  of  all  the  in- 
dustries derived  from  these  animals. 

Establishment  of  zootechnic  stations  and  model  farms. 
Practical  and  economical  means  of  collecting  statistics  of  all 
the  animals  of  Brazil.  Necessity  of  studying  a  progressive 
taxation  system  to  assist  the  production,  consistent  with  the 
Government's  interests.  Legislation.  Uniform  sanitary  in- 
spection of  animals  in  all  the  States.  Prizes  to  raisers  who 
introduce  new  processes  to  improve  breeding. 

This  shows  that  the  Brazilians  are  alive  to  the  importance 
of  their  pastoral  industry. 


140  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

Brazilian  cattle  derived  from  the  primitive  herds  are  small, 
weighing  on  an  average  about  400  Ibs.  dressed.  However,  the 
importation  of  sires  is  rapidly  taking  place,  and  the  improve- 
ment already  is  most  noticeable. 

In  a  paper  I  read  in  Chicago  before  the  Congress  of  Re- 
frigeration in  1913,  I  forecasted  exactly  what  has  happened. 
In  that,  I  said  that  Brazil  and  South  Africa  would  be  large 
suppliers  of  frozen  beef  in  the  near  future,  and  they  are  both 
rapidly  increasing  their  herds  and  their  output.  Many  freezing 
establishments  are  in  full  work  in  Brazil,  and  more  are  in 
course  of  construction ;  a  full  list  of  these  will  be  found  in 
the  Appendices. 

Transport  facilities  are  being  rapidly  developed,  and  new 
refrigerated  steamship  services  between  Brazilian  ports  and 
New  York  have  been  inaugurated.  It  is  not  only  in  the  south, 
however,  that  this  development  in  meat  shipments  is  taking 
place.  The  Compania  Pastoril  A gricola -Industrial  Piauhyense, 
with  a  large  capital,  has  been  inaugurated  to  go  into  the  busi- 
ness of  raising  and  slaughtering  cattle  and  packing  meat  in 
the  State  of  Piauhy,  in  the  north  ;  it  is  in  the  tropics,  but  that 
is  no  drawback.  Most  of  Australian  cattle  also  are  well  within 
the  tropical  belt.  Large  areas  in  the  State  of  Piauhy  are 
excellent  cattle  country. 

Brazilian  meat  is  of  excellent  quality,  a  recent  shipment 
having  shown  that  the  industry  is  developing  on  right  lines 
with  gradual  improvement  of  stock. 

Mr.  Duncan  Black,  a  Queenslander  who  has  been  resident 
for  several  years  in  South  America,  recently  revisited  Aus- 
tralia, and  during  his  stay  he  favoured  me  with  some 
first-hand  information  in  regard  to  primary  production  in 
South  America.  Mr.  Black  has  been  closely  associated  with  the 
cattle  trade,  and  has  had  unique  opportunities  of  studying 
its  possibilities.  With  Brazil  he  is  particularly  impressed,  as 
he  states  that  this  great  territory  is  on  the  brink  of  what  mast 
prove  to  be  marvellous  development. 

The  soil  and  climate  of  Brazil,  according  to  Mr.  Black,  are 
excellent,  and  the  country  is  permanently  watered  with  rivers 
and  creeks.  Water  can  also  be  obtained  by  shallow  sinking. 
Until  recently  the  cattle  industry  had  not  been  seriously  con- 


BEAZIL  141 

sidered,  production  having  been  confined  chiefly  to  coffee  and 
rubber.  Now,  however,  the  suitability  of  Brazil  for  cattle- 
raising  is  being  recognised,  and  the  country  is  going  ahead  by 
leaps  and  bounds.  The  Government  is  aiding  this  progressive 
movement  in  a  most  practical  manner.  A  bonus  of  from  £27 
to  £34  is  given  for  every  stud  cow  or  bull  imported  into  the 
country.  All  implements,  fencing  material,  and  other  things 
required  by  settlers  are  admitted  duty  free,  and  in  each 
of  the  twenty-one  States  of  Brazil  there  is*  a  Government  stud 
farm  where  stud  bulls  and  stallions  are  kept  for  the  free  use  of 
farmers. 

Every  facility  is  given  to  encourage  occupation  of  the  land. 
The  freehold  title  is  made  as  easy  as  possible  to  obtain.  Any- 
one wishing  to  secure  land  makes  application  for  Crown  lands 
available,  and  the  matter  is  put  through  with  as  little  delay 
as  possible.  Land  values  range  from  1/6  per  acre  on  the  high 
country  to  £3  per  acre  on  the  deltas  of  the  Alto  Paraguay, 
which  is  excellent  land  free  of  disease. 

Mr.  Black  states  that  the  natural  grasses  of  Brazil  are  not 
very  good  on  account  of  the  periodical  burning-off  they  have 
been  subjected  to,  but  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  improve  the 
pasture.  The  climate  and  soil,  on  the  whole,  are  not  suitable 
for  alfalfa  (lucerne),  but  a  good  substitute  is  found  in  the  native 
grass  jaragua.  This  grass,  apparently,  is  a  great  drought 
resister,  and  is  wonderfully  prolific,  easily  carrying  a  beast  to 
the  acre.  To  establish  jaragua  it  is  only  necessary  to  burn 
off  the  rank  grass  during  the  rainy  season,  and  then  scatter 
the  seed,  which  is  very  light  and  easily  obtained.  The  seed 
germinates  immediately  after  rain,  and  the  young  plants  are 
very  fast  growing.  The  first  growth  of  jaragua  is  left  until  it 
seeds,  which  it  does  very  plentifully.  When  the  seed  has  been 
shed,  the  grass  is  heavily  stocked  with  cattle,  and  is  well 
tramped  down.  The  stock  are  then  taken  off  and  the  grass  is 
burned  off.  The  young  grass  comes  away  again  very  quickly, 
and  when  about  9  inches  high  is  again  stocked  heavily,  and 
from  then  on  is  never  allowed  to  grow  higher  than  eight  or 
nine  inches.  After  about  two  years  of  stocking,  this  jaragua 
grass  undergoes  a  change,  stooling  out  instead  of  growing 
straight  up.  It  also  becomes  finer,  and  can  be  cut  for  hay, 


142  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

yielding  heavy  crops.  It  is  the  main  stand-by,  but  another 
useful  grass  is  angola,  a  very  hardy  grass,  drought  resisting, 
but  not  quite  so  heavy  carrying  as  jaragua.  Mr.  Black  con- 
sideis  that  both  these  grasses  would  do  splendidly  in  Australia. 

The  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  is  the  only  province  of  Brazil  which 
has  go  far  gone  ahead  in  the  cattle-raising  business,  chiefly  on 
account  of  its  proximity  to  Uruguay  and  Argentina,  where 
good  bulls  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price.  The  rest  of 
Brazil,  according  to  Mr.  Black,  is  on  the  brink  of  rapid  develop- 
ment. The  bads  of  cattle  breeding  is  the  native  herds,  which 
are  descendants  of  Spanish  cattle  run  wild.  The  importations 
being  made  are  chiefly  Shorthorns,  which  nick  well  with  the 
native  cattle.  Texas  fever  is  the  only  disease  that  troubles 
cattle  in  Brazil,  but  it  only  affects  imported  cattle,  native 
herds  being  naturally  immune.  It  is  now,  however,  only  a 
question  of  the  Government  arranging  to  have  the  imported 
stock  inoculated  to  remove  all  risk. 

There  are  no  restrictive  conditions  in  regard  to  taking  up 
land  in  Brazil.  There  are  no  labour  troubles,  wages  on  cattle 
stations  ranging  from  £3  to  £5  per  month.  The  native  is  a 
good  worker,  but  he  has  to  be  taught  to  handle  stock  kindly 
and  patiently.  Railway  construction  is  proceeding  at  a  great 
rate,  for  which  purpose  English  and  French  capital  is  pouring 
into  the  country.  Communication,  except  in  a  few  remote 
corners,  is  very  easy,  either  by  river  steamers  or  trains.  This 
was  before  the  war,  since  when,  naturally,  the  influx  of  capital 
has  stopped  from  Europe,  but  a  good  deal  has  been  going  in 
from  the  United  States. 

As  an  instance  of  the  progress  taking  place  in  Brazil,  Mr. 
Black  mentioned  that  the  American  Farquhar  Syndicate 
recently  bought  up  a  very  large  area  of  land  in  different 
parts  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay,  which  they  are  proceeding  to 
develop.  The  syndicate  brought  a  competent  staff  from 
Texas  to  work  the  properties.  They  are  stocking  up  as  fast 
as  possible,  and  recently  imported  1000  bulls  from  Texas.  Of 
late  years  English  people  have  purchased  large  properties,  and 
many  landholders  in  Argentina  have  sold  out  and  gone  to 
Brazil.  The  Government  gives  agriculturists  farms  ready 
made. 


BRAZIL  143 

In  conclusion,  Mr.  Black  said  :  "  After  experience  in  Aus- 
tralia, and  Argentina,  and  having  been  all  through  Uruguay, 
Bolivia,  and  Paraguay,  I  consider  there  are  no  better  oppor- 
tunities for  brains  and  capital  than  in  Brazil." 

BRAZIL  AS  A  PASTORAL  COUNTRY 

Of  the  twenty-one  Brazilian  States,  "  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  " 
is  by  far  the  most  advanced  in  pastoral  matters,  chiefly  owing 
to  the  fact  that  the  State  is  in  close  touch  with  Uruguay  and 
the  Argentine,  of  both  of  which  countries  she  forms  the 
southern  Brazilian  limit.  Although  the  class  of  cattle  bred 
is  not  to  be  compared  to  the  stock  of  the  other  two  countries 
mentioned,  breeders  are  now  making  every  effort  to  improve 
their  herds,  and  with  satisfactory  results,  as  they  are  now 
disposing  of  a  good  number  of  stock  for  freezing  purposes. 
Until  recently  all  the  cattle  bred  there  were  slaughtered  for 
the  purpose  of  making  "  Xarque  "  for  export  to  the  other 
States,  but  with  the  improvement  which  has  come  in  the 
quality  of  the  bullocks,  breeders  find  that  it  is  more  profitable 
to  dispose  of  their  stock  to  the  works  buyers,  and  consequently 
are  importing  good  bulls  in  large  numbers.  Several  breeders, 
thinking  that  the  Zebu  would  be  better  than  the  English 
breeds,  acting  on  the  advice  of  breeders  in  the  States  of  Minas 
and  Sao  Paulo,  where  the  Zebu  has  a  great  reputation,  imported 
them  on  quite  a  large  scale.  No  doubt  there  was  a  certain 
amount  of  reason  for  importing  Zebus  years  ago,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  they  are  very  hardy,  and  immune  from  tick 
fever,  which  holds  sway  over  all  parts  of  Brazil.  The  first 
cross  with  the  native  cows  gave  a  rakish,  big  bullock,  and 
although  the  meat  is  very  coarse,  yet  when  fat  it  made  good 
xarque,  and  that  was  the  "  end  in  view." 

The  State  next  in  order  to  Rio  Grande  is  Minas  Geraes, 
which  lies  north  and  west  of  the  State  of  Rio.  Here  we  find 
the  Noah's  Ark  as  regards  cattle,  every  breed  under  the  sun 
being  represented,  that  is,  if  we  except  the  English  breeds. 
Minas  is  the  home  of  the  Zebu,  and  some  very  nice  specimens 
are  to  be  seen  during  one's  travels,  which  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  considering  the  money  spent  in  purchasing  them. 


144  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Some  few  years  ago  the  Government  of  this  State  made  a 
contract  with  an  English  firm  in  Rio  to  deliver  a  thousand 
bulls,  meant  for  distribution  amongst  the  breeders  at  cost 
price — £100  sterling  each.  Of  the  total,  900  were  Zebus  im- 
ported from  India,  and  the  balance  was  made  up  of  Swiss, 
Dutch,  and  a  few  English  cattle.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  thing 
for  some  Zebu,  fanatic  in  Minas  to  pay  as  much  as  £1500 
sterling  for  a  bull  he  fancies. 

Unlike  Rio  Grande,  which  State  has  excellent  native  grasses, 
Minas  does  not  possess  native,  or,  rather,  natural  camp  of  any 
great  value.  The  country  has  had  to  be  improved  in  order  to 
carry  cattle  profitably,  and  this  has  been  done  in  a  way  which 
one  is  forced  to  admire,  against  one's  will.  Most  of  the  land 
under  jaragua  or  gordura,  which  are  the  best  grasses,  were  at 
one  time  useless  half  scrub  and  half  open  forest  country,  and 
were  improved  in  the  following  manner  :  Narrow  tracks  about 
ten  feet  wide  were  cleared  at  different  distances,  according  to 
the  density  of  the  scrub,  and  the  brush  piled  in  rows,  which, 
after  having  been  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry,  were  set 
fire  to  during  a  very  hot  day,  generally  in  the  month  of 
November,  and  when  there  was  a  fairly  good  breeze  blowing. 
Naturally,  the  dry  leaves  and  grass  were  completely  burnt  off, 
together  with  the  many  smaller  shrubs,  after  which  the  seeds 
of  the  grasses  mentioned  were  scattered  about,  generally  by 
men  on  horseback,  with  the  result  that  after  the  first  rain  the 
grass  came  away  quickly  and  smothered  any  new  growth  of 
shrubs,  the  ashes  left  after  burning  being  an  excellent  grip  for 
the  seed,  which  is  very  light.  November  and  December  being 
both  good  rain  months,  the  grass  made  quick  progress,  and 
the  land  was  left  unstocked  until  June  of  the  following  year, 
when  the  grasses  seeded  very  profusely,  and  then  the  land  was 
stocked  heavily.  After  some  time  all  the  seed  would  be  well 
tramped  into  the  soil,  leaving,  of  course,  quite  a  lot  of  decayed 
vegetation,  which  was  burnt  off  on  the  first  favourable  day, 
after  a  shower  of  rain,  and  when  the  old  grass  was  dry.  As 
soon  as  the  fresh  sprout  came  away,  the  land  was  again  stocked 
and  the  grass  never  allowed  to  become  rank.  This  may  seem 
to  be  a  very  haphazard  way  of  doing  things,  but  as  time  was 
no  object,  and  land  was  cheap,  the  results  were  satisfactory. 


BRAZIL  145 

Some  beautiful  fattening  lands  may  be  seen  which  have  been 
formed  in  the  manner  described,  and  as  grazing  lands  they  are 
hard  to  beat,  carrying  during  the  summer  months  as  many  as 
two  head  of  cattle  to  the  acre,  and  averaging  one  beast  to  the 
acre  all  the  year  round .  During  the  winter  months  the  grass  goes 
off  to  a  certain  extent,  but  makes  quick  headway  with  the 
arrival  of  spring.  These  lands  are  all  naturally  watered,  it 
being  a  rare  thing  to  see  a  well  or  dam  constructed  in  any  part 
of  the  country,  and  being  close  to  the  federal  capital  have  in- 
creased in  value  very  quickly.  For  the  newcomer  the  prices 
are  a  little  high  ;  but  many  opportunities  occur  when  land 
can  be  bought  at  a  reasonable  rate. 

Next  in  importance  to  Minas,  from  a  pastoral  point  of  view, 
come  the  States  of  Goyaz,,  Matto-Grosso  and  Parana,  and  in 
any  one  of  them  the  newcomer  may  find  excellent  opportunities 
for  investment. 

Being  further  inland,  land  is  much  cheaper,  and,  looking  at 
matters  from  a  practical  point  of  view,  these  are  the  best 
States  to  invest  in.  Large  tracts  of  open,  rolling  downs,  well 
watered  by  running  streams,  can  be  purchased  for  next  to 
nothing  ;  but  although  the  soil  is  of  excellent  quality,  the 
grasses  are,  generally  speaking,  very  poor,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  land  has  been  burned  for  centuries,  and  the  more 
tender  grasses  exterminated.  Land  can  be  bought  at  from  2/- 
to  5/-  per  acre,  according  to  the  distance  from  the  railways, 
and,  economically  worked,  can  be  improved  at  about  4/—  per 
acre.  As  in  the  State  of  Minas,  burning  the  grass  off  when 
thickly  covered,  and  then  sowing  the  grass  seed,  has  been 
until  now  the  most  popular  way,  but  this  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. The  best  way  is  to  run  the  plough  lightly  over  the 
land,  say,  to  a  depth  of  four  inches,  harrow  it,  and  sow  im- 
mediately, during  the  months  of  September,  October,  Novem- 
ber, and  December,  which  are  the  rainy  months,  and  Natuie 
does  the  rest.  The  native  grasses  have  very  superficial  ro^ts, 
and,  when  turned  over  by  the  disc,  which  is  the  best  for  the 
purpose,  become  extinct,  as  after  the  first  shower  of  rain  either 
jaragua  or  gordura  come  away  quickly  and  choke  out  any 
few  remaining  plants^  The  grass  sown  in  September,  that  is, 
provided  that  the  seasons  are  normal,  can  be  grazed  by  Decem- 


146  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

ber,  and  the  stock  kept  on  until  April,  when  it  is  advisable  to 
retire  the  stock,  allowing  the  grass  to  seed,  which  it  does  about 
the  middle  of  June.  After  collecting  the  seed  required  for 
future  operations,  it  is  restocked  heavily,  and  when  well  beaten 
down,  if  the  time  is  favourable,  it  may  be  burnt  to  clean  away 
any  dry  rubbish. 

Matto-Grosso  and  Parana  are  the  two  States  where  the 
famous  Farquhar  Syndicate,  under  the  denomination  of  the 
Brazil  Land,  Cattle,  and  Packing  Company,  is  working  on 
extensive  lines.  The  total  extension  purchased  by  this  com- 
pany'is  approximately  6,500,000  acres,  the  greater  part  being  in 
Matto-Grosso,  and  includes  a  lot  of  excellent  natural  camp  in 
what  is  called  "  Pantanaes,"  or,  in  other  words,  land  situated 
on  the  banks  of  the  Upper  Paraguay  river  and  its  affluences. 
These  lands  are  subject  to  floods,  but  are  excellent  for  cattle- 
raising,  the  only  drawback  being  that  the  horses  suffer  severely 
at  times  from  "  Cadeira,"  as  it  is  called,  a  disease  similar  to 
the  horse  disease  of  South  Africa.  With  care,  however,  the 
losses  are  not  great,  but  unless  the  horses  are  inspected  each 
morning,  and  steps  taken  against  the  disease  spreading,  all 
the  horses  on  the  property  may  be  lost,  the  disease  being  very 
contagious. 

For  the  small  capitalist,  with,  say,  from  five  to  ten  thousand 
pounds  to  invest,  provided  that  he  is  a  practical  man,  and  not 
afraid  to  work,  the  south  of  Matto-Grosso  is  a  good  place. 
For  those  with  larger  capital,  it  is  still  better,  as  by  importing 
good  bulls  in  number  sufficient  to  put  with  all  the  cows  straight 
away,  instead  of  having  to  wait,  and  improve  by  using  half- 
bred  sires,  speedy  results  can  be  attained,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  fact  that  the  larger  capitalist  could  also  improve  his  land 
much  quicker  than  the  man- with  smaller  means.  The  Govern- 
ment gives  free  transport  for  all  sires  over  their  lines,  and 
by  subventioned  lines  of  river  steamers,  and  the  private  com- 
panies have  followed  suit.  Seed  is  carried  free,  and  agricul- 
tural implements  at  nominal  rates  ;  this  refers  to  all  lines. 

With  the  shortage  of  cattle  in  many  countries  affected  by 
the  war,  there  is  no  doubt  that  Brazil  is  one  of  the  best  countries 
to  invest  in,  taking  into  consideration  the  quality  and  price  of 
the  land. 


BRAZIL  147 

An  Australian,  now  resident  in  Brazil,  writes  to  me :  "  Brazil 
with  her  vast  extent  of  excellent  cattle-raising  lands,  abun- 
dantly watered  and  easily  improved,  offers  opportunities  not 
to  be  met  with  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  No  other 
country  is  so  lavish  in  Government  assistance  to  pastoralists 
or  farmers  ;  but  still  progress  has  been  slow  in  both  these  pur- 
suits, mainly  on  account  of  the  lack  of  initiative  of  private  indi- 
viduals. The  average  Brazilian  likes  politics  better  than 
work,  so  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  the  man  who  wants  to 
work  intelligently.  To  the  Australian  who  has  a  little  capital, 
I  can  truthfully  state  that,  comparing  the  two  countries,  I 
prefer  Brazil,  that  is — there  is  no  domineering  Government 
whose  one  idea  seems  to  be  to  invent  new  taxes  for  those  who 
keep  the  country  going,  no  labour  unions  whose  one  idea  seems 
to  be  the  ruining  of  the  honest  working  men  by  not  allowing 
them  to  do  enough  work  to  keep  them  physically  fit.  I  will  not 
claim  that  the  Brazilian  Government  is  a  model  one  ;  it  makes 
no  pretence  to  be  perfect,  but  to  its  credit  may  be  said  that  it 
helps  those  who  are  engaged  in  either  of  the  industries  referred 
to,  realising  that  the  future  of  the  country  depends  on  them. 

"As  to  the  railway  communications,  they  are  much  better 
than  in  Australia.  One  can  travel  comfortably,  and  at  a  reason- 
able rate,  anywheie,  if  the  Central  Railway — a  Government- 
owned  and  controlled  concern — is  dropped  out.  It  is  a  remark- 
able thing  that  Government-controlled  railways  in  any  part  of 
the 'world  are  usually  failures  (especially  is  this  so  in  the  Com- 
monwealth of  Australia,  where  you  have  one  of  the  worst  of 
services,  and  yet  many  Australians  have  asked  me  if  we  have 
decent  railways  in  South  America).  The  '  Central '  (Govern- 
ment owned)  Railway  costs  the  country  the  small  trifle  of 
about  a  million  pounds  sterling  yearly  in  dead  loss,  yet  lately, 
an  English  company  offered  the  bagatelle  of  £12,000,000 
sterling  for  the  '  concern  '  a£  it  stood.  Naturally,  the  offer  was 
refused,  because  there  are  a  lot  of  '  political  friends  '  to  be 
protected  ;  and  so  it  goes  on  losing  money  for  the  country, 
instead  of  being  a  '  paying  concern,'  as  it  would  be  were  it  in 
the  hands  of  a  private  company. 

"  I  do  not  wish  to  paint  everything  the  colour  of  roses  as 
regards  Brazil,  and  I  am  sure  that  any  Brazilian  who  may 


148  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

read  this  report  will  cordially  agree  with  me  as  far  as  railways 
are  concerned. 

"If  we  take  any  of  the  other  railways  of  the  country  into 
consideration  there  is  no  complaint  to  be  made  against  them, 
that  is,  as  far  as  the  private  companies  are  concerned.  The 
Paulista,  one  of  the  great  tracks  of  the  country,  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  best  in  the  world,  to  say  nothing  of  the  Leo- 
poldina,  which  compares  quite  favourably  with  the  former. 
The  latter  company  has  done  quite  a  lot  for  the  progress  of 
the  country  by  installing  a  '  model  farm,'  where  lads  may  go 
for  instruction  in  the  art  of  preparing  all  kinds  of  dairy  produce, 
and  lately  it  has  started  a  '  travelling  agricultural  wagon,' 
which  travels  all  over  the  line  owned  by  the  company,  showing 
all  kinds  of  implements,  and  the  expert  in  charge  gives  all  the 
information  required. 

"  The  former  company,  the  Paulista,  have  also  done  pioneer 
service,  insomuch  that  it  is  chiefly  owing  to  the  efforts  of  the 
general  inspector,  Dr.  F.  Monlevade,  that  the  export  of  meat 
commenced." 

There  are  some  splendid  flocks  of  British  breeds  of  sheep 
owned  by  a  few  of  the  best  farmers.  In  the  Rio  Grande  the 
Southdown  is  preferred,  and  the  wool  produced  is  abundant 
and  fine  ;  the  Romney  Marsh  is  suitable  for  most  parts  of 
Brazil.  The  plateaux  of  Parana  and  Santa  Catharina  and  Rio 
Grande  with  an  average  of  2000  ft.  elevation,  are  well  suited  to 
sheep.  Also  Central  Brazil,  3300  to  4000  ft,  altitude,  with  its 
glorious  climate,  is  specially  suited,  and  in  the  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul  there  are  already  over  2,000,000  sheep. 

A  London  Syndicate,  with  a  capital  of  £1,000,000  for  the 
purpose  of  stock-raising  in  Brazil  South,  is  in  existence. 

There  are  vast  expanses  of  pasturage  available  for  cattle- 
raising.  The  Brazilian  Railway  Company  have  purchased 
7,000,000  acres  of  grazing  land,  and  they  say  it  is  just  as  good 
as  the  best  North  American  prairies,  and  there  is  sufficient 
supply  of  native  stock  to  ensure  the  rapid  development  of  a 
prosperous  industry  on  a  very  extensive  scale.  The  Company 
have  already  over  150,000  head  of  cattle,  and  the  number  is 
fast  being  increased  by  local  purchases,  while  large  numbers  of 
stud  cattle  are  being  imported. 


BRAZIL 


149 


Summing  up,  Brazil  with  its  30,000,000  head  of  cattle,  with 
the  importation  of  good  bulls,  'American  and  British  brains 
and  push,  and  with  its  far-seeing  politicians,  together  with  its 
proximity  to  the  big  markets  of  the  world,  is  bound  to  be 
within  the  next  ten  years  a  very  large  supplier  of  beef,  possibly 
as  large  as  that  of  its  southern  neighbour,  Argentina.  It  is  a 
great  field  for  capital,  and  one  where  Labour  Unions  have  not, 
and  are  not  likely  to  have,  the  opportunity  of  throttling  in- 
dividual and  natural  progress. 


GROUP  OF  SHORTHORN  Cows  AT  THE  ROYAL  FARM,  WINDSOR,  ENGLAND 


OTHER  SOUTH  AMERICAN  STATES 
URUGUAY 

URUGUAY,  which  extends  from  latitude  30  deg.  to  40  deg. 
South,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Brazil,  on  the  south 
by  Argentina,  the  west  by  Paraguay  and  Argentina,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  area  of  the  country  is  72,210 
square  miles,  and  the  population  about  1,750,000.  It  is  the 
smallest  of  the  South  American  States.  It  has  a  wide,  almost 
unbroken,  sweep  of  park -like  plains  with  no  big  mountains.  It 
has  a  network  of  rivers,  and  so  is  splendidly  watered  ;  700  miles 
of  the  rivers  are  navigable.  The  camp,  or  grazing  country,  is 
of  a  gently  rolling  nature,  and  it  is  difficult  to  find  any  large 
part  of  it  unprovided  with  a  bountiful  water  supply.  The 
soil  is  deep  and  arable,  and  supplies  good  pasture  for  the  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep  grazing  on  it.  The  climate  is  mild,  with  no 
extremes  of  heat  or  cold,  and  the  live-stock  industry  is  the 
chief  source  of  the  country's  commerce,  37,500,000  acres  of 
the  total  area  of  the  Republic  being  given  over  to  pasturage. 

For  a  long  time  the  preparation  of  jerked  beef  (tasajo)  was 
a  loading  industry  in  Uruguay,  and  during  one  year  over 
700,000  cattle  were  slaughtered  for  this  product  alone,  making 
over  113,000,000  pounds  of  meat,  with  a  value  of  about 
£1,300,000. 

The  number  of  cattle  is  about  8,000,000  and  of  sheep  about 
12,000,000.  My  last  visit  to  Uruguay,  in  1913,  showed  me 
that  very  great  improvement  has  taken  place  in  recent  years 
in  the  flocks  and  herds  through  the  introduction  of  stud  cattle 
and  sheep  from  Great  Britain.  Merino  sheep  predominate, 
and  the  wool  industry  is  a  large  one.  Refrigeration  has  stepped 
in,  and  the  exports  of  meat  are  jumping  ahead.  As  most  of 
the  cattle  are  beef  cattle,  there  is  no  reason,  except  shortage 
of  freezing  works,  why  the  export  of  beef  should  not  amount 
to  1,500,000  quarters  per  annum  even  at  the  present  time. 

150 


URUGUAY  151 

There  is  another  process  by  which  cattle  meat  is  utilised. 
Few  people  are  aware  that  much  of  the  beef  extract  on  the 
markets  comes  from  the  special  establishments  in  Uruguay 
erected  for  that  purpose.  The  name  "  Liebig  "  is  now  actually 
synonymous  with  beef  extract ;  and  the  company's  factory 
is  at  Fray  Bentos,  on  the  Uruguay  River,  about  100  miles 
above  Buenos  Aires,  but  where  there  ig  a  depth  of  water 
sufficient  to  allow  the  entrance  of  vessels  of  a  draft  of  20  ft. 
Fray  Bentos  has  been  called  the  greatest  kitchen  in  the  world, 
and  on  some  days  2500  head  of  cattle  are  slaughtered  and 
treated. 

There  is  room  for  greater  development,  because,  with  all 
that  has  been  accomplished,  the  limit  of  economic  produc- 
tivity is  a  long  way  from  being  reached.  With  the  steadily 
increasing  demand  for  meat  and  meat  products  in  all  the 
consuming  markets  of  the  world,  with  the  well-known  adapt- 
ability of  the  people  of  Uruguay  for  agricultural  and  pastoral 
life,  with  the  encouraging  tendency  to  aid  immigration  to  the 
country,  and  the  facility  with  which  new  settlers  are  absorbed 
by  the  population,  Uruguay  takes  a  favoured  place  among 
the  cattle  countries  of  America. 

A  Uruguayan  law  of  8th  January,  1916,  extends  for  five 
years  the  period  during  which  building  material  and  machinery 
for  the  construction  of  meat-packing  establishments  are  to  be 
admitted  free  of  duty.  The  exemption  from  duty  of  such 
articles  was  previously  authorised  for  a  period  of  five  years 
by  a  law  of  13th  July,  1911. 

The  first  freezing  plant  in  Uruguay  was  the  Frigorifica 
Uruguaya,  established  at  Montevideo.  It  has  a  present  daily 
capacity  of  1200  steers  and  4000  sheep.  In  1911  Swift  borght 
three  jerked  beef  plants  located  near  Montevideo,  and  com- 
menced the  erection  of  a  freezing  plant  with  a  capital  of 
4,000,000  pesos.  The  company  soon  became  a  leading  factor 
in  the  Uruguayan  cattle  market,  and  has  a  present  capacity 
of  2000  steers  and  3000  sheep  per  day.  A  Morris  plant,  known 
as  the  Frigorifico  Artigas,  has  a  capacity  of  from  1000  to  2000 
steers,  2000  sheep  and  500  hogs  per  day. 


PARAGUAY 

THE  Republic  of  Paraguay  is  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
South  American  continent,  between  latitude  17-15  deg.  and 
27-31  deg.  S.,  and  longitude  54-5  deg.  and  62-30  deg.  W. 
The  country  has  no  seaboard,  being  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bolivia  and  Brazil,  east  by  Brazil,  south  and  west  by  the 
Argentine.  Paraguay  proper,  the  area  of  which  is  estimated 
at  65,000  square  miles,  lies  between  the  rivers  Paraguay  and 
Alto  Parana,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Brazilian 
province  of  Matto-Grosso.  To  the  west,  between  the  rivers 
Paraguay  and  Pilcomayo,  lies  the  lit  tie -known  region  of  the 
Chaco,  the  area  of  which  is  estimated  at  107,000  square  miles, 
or  about  that  of  Italy.  All  Paraguay  belongs  to  the  formation 
of  the  low-lying  region  which  is  comprised  between  the  Bra- 
zilian coast  range  on  the  east  and  the  Andes  on  the  west,  and 
through  which  the  two  great  waterways,  the  Paraguay  and  the 
Alto  Parana,  flow  towards  the  south  and  pass  into  the  vast 
estuary  of  the  River  Plate.  Paraguay  proper  consists  for  the 
most  part  of  a  level  or  gently  undulating  plain,  from  which  in 
some  places  low  hills  rise  abruptly.  These  hills  nowhere  reach 
a  height  of  more  than  2000  ft.  above  sea-level,  while  the  average 
height  of  the  plain  is  about  550  ft.  The  level  country  consists 
of  grass  land  alternating  with  woods  and  forests,  the  latter 
occupying  the  greater  area,  while  the  higher  ground  almost 
everywhere  is  clothed  with  dense  forests.  It  is  well  watered 
by  the  numerous  tributaries  of  the  great  rivers,  while  a  large 
pait  of  the  level  ground  on  the  west  side  of  the  Cordilleras  is 
swampy  and  liable  to  inundation.  The  Chaco  differs  from  Para- 
guay proper  in  that  it  consists  exclusively  of  level,  scarcely 
undulating,  ground  unbroken  by  hills  of  any  kind.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  territory,  which  seems  formerly  to  have  formed 
the  bed  of  an  inland  sea,  may  be  regarded  as  the  delta  of  the 

152 


PARAGUAY  153 

River  Pilcomayo.  At  the  last  census,  1915,  there  were  5,250,000 
cattle  and  600,000  sheep  in  the  country. 

The  live-stock  industry  in  Paraguay  is  one  of  the  most  pros- 
perous, and  one  of  the  most  productive.  There  is  a  sure  market 
in  the  country  or  in  the  Argentine.  The  commercial  world  has 
discovered  in  Paraguay  an  appreciable  reserve  in  live-stock,  and 
the  demand  will  continue  to  increase,  and  under  improved 
management  so  will  the  supplies. 

Paraguay  lands  have  always  been  noted  for  their  healthy 
condition,  and  Paraguay  stock  for  their  prolificness.  Animals 
are  born  and  develop  with  very  little  personal  attention.  The 
abundance  of  pastures,  water,  and  the  scarcely  sensible 
climatic  changes  offer  exceptional  conditions  suitable  for  live- 
stock production.  If  the  almost  wonderful  resources  of  vege- 
table food  were  added  to  the  natural  conditions  of  the  country 
the  results  would  be  doubled.  The  inter -breeding  during  cen- 
turies among  the  native  animals,  and  the  negligence  in  pre- 
serving the  camps,  abandoned  for  centuries,  have  produced  in 
the  Paraguayan  live-stock  a  considerable  depreciation  in 
quality. 

Good  management  will  correct  these  defects.  The  crossing 
of  the  native  with  pure  breeds  should  be  the  first  improve- 
ment to  be  undertaken.  The  cattle  rancher's  object  shculd  be 
the  improvement  of  the  breed  ;  that  is  what  is  really  needed. 
The  system  employed  until  lately  by  ranch  owners  has  been 
to  hold  large  tracts  of  land,  unattended,  with  a  heavy  number 
of  animals,  without  occupying  themselves  with  breeding  good 
animals  ;  this  system  must  be  abolished.  What  can  be  done 
will  be  seen  by  the  excellent  lessons  given  by  the  neighbouring 
Republics  which  have  obtained  the  renewal  of  the  greater  part 
of  their  stock,  with  enormous  benefits  to  the  industry. 

Meat  is  naturally  very  cheap,  perhaps  cheaper  than  in  any 
other  country  in  the  world,  since  a  bullock  3J  to  4  years  old 
is  worth  only  15  dollars  to  20  dollars  gold.  The  hide,  tallow 
and  grease  being  worth  alone  one-half  that  amount,  there 
remains,  say,  10  dollars,  as  the  value  of  300  to  350  Ibs.  of  meat, 
being  less  than  4  cents  per  Ib.  for  meat  of  the  best  quality 
without  bones. 

There  being  such  an  abundance  of  cheap  meat,  the  Govern- 


154  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

ment  of  Paraguay,  desirous  of  encouraging  the  meat  preserving 
industry,  has  just  lately  passed  a  law  providing  for  the 
introduction  free  of  duty  of  all  things  necessary  for  equipping 
such  a  factory,  and  has  provided  for  the  very  small  export 
duty  of  15  cents  gold  on  the  finished  product  of  each  bullock 
or  cow. 

Paraguay,  with  about  1,000,000  inhabitants,  is  a  country  so 
thinly  populated  that  it  must  take  a  century  or  more  before 
it  becomes  short  of  pastures  for  breeding  cattle,  horses,  mules 
and  sheep. 

Pretty  well  throughout  the  country  you  can  run  a  beast  to 
four  acres.  In  fact,  that  number  of  acres  for  a  beast  is  a 
Government  minimum.  This  law  is  in  force  in  several  States 
of  South  America,  viz.  that  the  number  of  beasts  is  limited 
on  a  set  amount  of  land — a  wise  provision  to  stop  over-stock- 
ing. Large  steamers  can  go  up  the  River  Plate  and  the  Parana 
as  far  as  Asuncion  (capital),  650  miles  from  Buenos  Aires. 

An  extract  and  canning  factory  at  San  Salvador,  Northern 
Paraguay,  has  been  constructed.  This  is  under  American 
management,  and  has  a  capacity  for  treating  150  head  of  cattle 
daily  for  extract  and  350  for  corned  beef  making.  Stock- 
raising  is  the  basic  industry  of  Northern  Paraguay,  and  the 
North  Americans  have  invested  large  sums  of  money  in  the 
country  lately.  A  company  incorporated  at  Delaware  has 
spent  1,000,000  dollars  in  the  Paraguayan  Chaco,  which  is 
practically  unknown,  and  which,  when  opened  up,  should 
afford  excellent  pastures. 

The  Frigorifico  Paraguay  Carne  Conservada  has  been 
organised  in  Asuncion  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  meat  freez- 
ing and  canning  works.  The  company  intends  to  erect  a 
plant  capable  of  dealing  with  300  head  of  cattle  per  day. 


CHILE 

THE  Republic  of  Chile  lies  between  the  Andes  and  the  South 
Pacific,  between  latitude  17  deg.  15  min.  and  55  deg.  59  min. 
S.,  and  longitude  66  deg.  30  min.  and  75  deg.  40  min.  W.  Its 
extreme  length  is  about  2800  miles,  the  coast  line  is  about 
2625  miles,  and  the  average  width  90  miles.  The  Andes  form 
the  eastern  frontier,  with  an  elevation  of  5000  to  10,000  ft. 
above  sea-level,  and  the  highest  point,  22,422  ft.,  is  Acon- 
cagua, an  extinct  volcano.  The  total  area  is  about  291,500 
square  miles,  with  a  population  of  3,500,000. 

There  are  at  present  about  2,000,000  cattle  and  5,000,000 
sheep  in  the  country.  In  the  far  south,  with  Punta  Arenas  as 
a  centre,  there  are  large  flocks  of  British  breeds  of  sheep  and 
several  meat  works  operating.  A  very  high  class  of  mutton  is 
exported,  while  the  stock-owners  are  British  born,  and  several 
New  Zealanders  have  settled  there. 

The  northern  part  of  the  country  is  comparatively  bare  of 
pastures,  but  rich  in  minerals.  The  central  has  fertile  plains 
and  a  tempeiate  climate  ;  here  cattle-raising  is  carried  on 
largely. 


155 


PATAGONIA 

IN  describing  the  plains  of  Patagonia  recently  one  writer  says  : 
"  Shut  your  eyes  and  think  of  yourself  with  a  good  nag  between 
your  legs  going  at  an  easy  canter  over  the  soft  and  grassy 
pampa.  Above  you  a  turquoise  sky  and  a  brilliant  sun,  below 
you  blue  lakes,  soft  turf  and  sparkling  streams,  on  the  lakes 
and  rivers  black-headed  swans  and  pinky-winged  flamingoes, 
geese,  and  ducks  galore,  and  now  and  then  a  jacksnipe.  Small 
foxes  play  about  you  like  kittens,  and  ostriches  leg  it  away  a 
hundred  yards  ahead  of  you,  their  long  necks  stretched  out, 
and  their  wings  highly  lifted  to  help  them  out  of  the  danger 
zone.  The  life  and  place  so  enchanted  me  that  a  year  later  I 
became  the  owner  of  much  camp,  16  leagues,  and  many  sheep. 
In  the  middle  of  my  pioperty  is  a  lake  five  miles  by  two  miles 
across."  The  farm  is  now  earning  50  per  cent  dividends  ;  and 
this  is  a  true  picture  of  Patagonia.  There  is  one  British  com- 
pany there  owning  six  million  acres  of  land,  upon  which  there 
are  1,500,000  sheep,  and  which  regularly  imports  studs  from 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  or  they  did  until  shipping  facili- 
ties failed  them.  In  Tierra  del  Fuego  the  company  owns  also 
2,250,000  acres  of  good  sheep  country.  The  manager  of  this 
is  a  New  Zealander,  like  so  many  men  in  Patagonia. 
Chile  can  be  depended  upon  for  frozen  mutton  in  increasing 
quantities,  but  beef  cannot  be  looked  for  in  any  but  limited 
amounts. 

The  following  account  of  the  development  of  meat  freezing 
in  Patagonia  I  have  quoted  from  a  paper  entitled  "  Sheep 
Freezing  in  Patagonia,"  read  recently  by  Mr.  R.  J.  Cracknell 
before  the  Cold  Storage  and  Ice  Association  : — 

"  The  sheep -freezing  industry  in  Patagonia  was  started  by 
the  erection  in  1903-4  of  freezing  wrorks  at  Rio  Seco,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Magellan  Straits,  about  eight  miles  from  Punt  a 
Arenas,  by  the  South  American  Export  Syndicate, 

156 


PATAGONIA  157 

"  These  works  were  followed  two  years  later  by  similar  works 
at  St.  Gregory  Bay,  about  70  miles  from  Rio  Seco,  and 
later  by  other  works  at  Puerta  Borico,  on  the  shore  of  Ultima 
Esperanza,  an  inlet  from  the  Pacific,  and  about  180  miles  from 
Punta  Arenas  ;  also  at  Gallegos,  in  Argentine  Patagonia,  on 
the  Atlantic,  about  200  miles  from  Punta  Arenas,  and  in 
1917  works  were  started  in  Punta  Arenas  itself. 

"  The  season  in  Patagonia  is  a  very  short  one,  lasting  usually 
from  the  middle  of  January  to  the  latter  part  of  May,  the 
actual  working  time  being  a  little  over  one  hundred  working 
days. 

"  Tor  the  remaining  part  of  the  year  the  works  are  closed 
down,  during  which  time  extensions,  alterations,  or  repairs  are 
effected. 

"  For  this  reason,  during  the  season  work  is  carried  on  at 
high  pressure,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every- 
thing should  go  smoothly  and  without  hitch. 

"  In  arranging  the  programme  for  the  season,  the  ideal  aimed 
at  i3  that  the  sheep  shall  arrive  at  the  works  at  the  same  rate 
that  they  can  be  killed,  which  varies  from  3000  to  4000  per  day. 

"  As  the  sheep  are  sometimes  as  much  as  fifteen  days  on  the 
track,  walking  from  the  farm  to  the  works,  a  programme  is  got 
out  and  arrangements  made  for  several  weeks  ahead. 

"  Every  sheep  is  selected  by  the  freezing  works'  own 
'  approvers,'  who  visit  the  various  farms  for  this  purpose.  In 
some  cases  the  approver  will  go  through  10,000  sheep  in 
selecting  3000. 

"  A  part  of  the  sheep  for  the  San  Gregorio,  Rio  Seco  and 
Punta  Arenas  works  are  also  brought  over  by  steamer  from 
Tierra  del  Fuego. 

"  Most  of  the  works  have  a  canning  plant  in  addition,  and 
at  the  Bories  works  they  have  a  fellmongery  where  they  treat 
their  own  skins.  There  is  also  a  fellmongery  at  Tres  Pontes, 
about  three  miles  from  Punta  Arenas,  where  the  skins  from  the 
Punta  Arenas  and  Rio  Seco  works  are  treated.  At  these 
works  as  many  as  6000  skins  can  be  treated  per  day. 

'  The  method  of  loading  varies  at  the  different  works,  the 
general  method  being  to  load  the  carcases  into  trucks,  which 
are  then  run  down  to  a  pier,  where  they  are  transferred  to  the 


158      THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTUR^l 

steamer.  In  some  cases,  owing  to  there  not  being  sufficient 
depth  of  water  for  the  steamer  to  come  alongside,  the  carcases 
are  transferred  to  barges,  which  are  towed  out  to  the  steamer 
lying  about  half  a  mile  out.  From  200  to  300  tons  are  loaded 
per  day. 

"  The  total  number  of  carcases  brought  to  England  from 
all  these  works  is  about  1,350,000.  The  steamers  arrive  at 
rather  long  intervals,  and  are  anxiously  awaited  by  the  works' 
managers,  especially  as  under  present  conditions  the  arrivals 
are  very  uncertain.  In  some  cases  the  stores  are  entirely  filled, 
and  half  the  freezing  rooms  used  as  stores  before  the  steamer 
arrives.  Another  day  or  two  of  delay  would  bring  the  works 
to  an  entire  standstill,  the  consequence  of  which  would  be 
disastrous,  as  it  is  impossible  to  stop  the  arrival  of  the  sheep. 
In  a  few  days  there  would  be  10,000  to  15,000  sheep  around 
the  works  with  no  adequate  feed  tor  them,  this  having  generally 
disappeared  before  half  the  season  is  over. 

"  In  addition  to  the  works  mentioned  there  are  also  freezing 
and  canning  works  at  St.  Julian,  which  are  owned  by  Swifts. 
New  works  are  on  the  point  of  completion  at  Rio  Grande,  in 
the  island  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  works  are  projected,  and 
now  in  course  of  construction  at  Natalis,  near  the  Bories  works, 
and  in  opposition  to  these  works.  The  Rio  Seco  works  is  the 
only  British  company,  the  others  being  Chilian,  except  the 
Gallegos  and  St.  Julian  works,  which  belong  to  Swifts. 

"  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  it  was  a  British  firm  that  first  had 
the  courage  and  energy  to  undertake  the  erection  of  freezing 
works  in  that  remote  region.  The  difficulties  met  with  in 
carrying  out  this  work  were  enormous,  owing  to  want  of 
facilities.  The  success  of  the  undertaking  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  forming  of  local  companies  for  erecting  the 
other  works,  as  already  explained,  but  the  country  is  greatly 
indebted  to  this  British  firm  for  the  prosperity  that  has  followed 
the  initiation  of  this  industry." 


UNITED   STATES   OF  AMERICA 

As  regards  live-stock  the  United  States  is  not  by  any  means 
as  spent  as  it  was  generally  supposed  to  be.  It  is  nearly  ten 
years  since  the  world  wab  informed  that  the  internal  demand 
had  overtaken  the  supply,  and  that  the  United  States  would 
have  to  look  to  Argentina  for  beef  and  Australia  for  mutton 
with  which  to  feed  her  own  people.  What  do  we  see  now  ? 
The  number  of  cattle  marketed  daring  1917  was  12,278,000  in 
the  nine  principal  markets — it  was  the  largest  in  the  history 
of  the  country,  bat,  in  spite  of  this,  there  were  more  cattle  on 
the  farms  at  the  end  of  the  year  than  at  the  commencement. 
The  exports  of  fresh  beef  from  the  United  States  increased 
from  6,400,000  Ibs.  in  1914  to  231,000,000  Ibs.  in  1916.  The 
exports  of  bacon  in  the  same  period  increased  from  194,000,000 
Ibs.  to  667,000,000  Ibs.  The  total  weight  of  all  beef  products 
exported  from  the  United  States  in  1917  was  411,000,000  Ibs. 
The  weight  of  pork  products  was  1500  million  Ibs.  The 
average  amount  per  head  received  for  beef  carcases  and  by- 
products was  £19/7/6.  Of  this  sum,  £17/11/7  was  paid  to  the 
grower,  10/8 'for  killing,  dressing,  etc.,  9/7  for  freight,  10/3 
for  selling  expenses,  and  5/5  represented  profit.  Frozen  meat 
in  storage  on  July  1st,  1918,  increased  49-3  per  cent,  and  frozen 
pork  increased  71-37,  as  compared  with  1917.  These  remark- 
able figures  show  what  American  stockmen  can  and  will  do 
when  called  upon  in  some  emergency.  The  stock-breeder  in 
the  United  States  is  not  likely  to  be  handicapped  by  the  Govern- 
ment fixing  a  maximum  price  for  meat.  In  fixing  a  price  for 
fat  cattle,  should  such  a  thing  have  to  occur,  a  minimum 
price  should  be  guaranteed,  and  the  cost  of  rearing  and  fat- 
tening, of  course,  taken  into  account  at  the  time. 

To  the  ordinary  mind  "  price  control  "  carries  with  it  the 
idea  of  keeping  prices  down,  while,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is 

159 


160  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

production  and  not  price  that  is  important  at  a  time  like  the 
present.  Price  control  should  mean  stabilizing  and  fixing 
prices  on  a  basis  which  will  insure  the  greatest  production, 
and  thus  automatically  prices  will  come  down. 

The  latest  returns  published  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Statistics  in  January,  1918,  estimate  the  existing  number 
of  cattle  in  that  country  at  66,830,000  head,  an  increase  of 
3,100,000  (or  4-9  per  cent)  over  the  previous  year's  total  of 
63,700,000  head  ;  and  18-2  per  cent  more  than  the  low-water 


A  UNITED  STATES  SHORTHORN  BULL 
Champion  at  thirty-six  shows. 

mark  in  1913,  when  only  56,527,000  head  were  recorded. 
Sheep  were  returned  at  48,900,000  head,  as  compared  with 
48,500,000  at  the  end  of  1916.  The  figures  in  respect  of  cattle 
indicate  that  steady  progress  is  being  made  in  replenishing 
the  herds  of  the  United  States,  which  had  suffered  a  continued 
and  serious  decline  for  several  years  prior  to  the  war. 

In  other  words,  the  number  of  cattle  on  farms  is  greater 
to-day  than  ever  before,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
number  sent  to  market  for  slaughter  in  1917  was  the  greatest 
in  the  history  of  the  country.  It  is  not  generally  realised  by 
the  public  that  the  record  marketings  of  both  1916  and  1917 


UNITED   STATES  161 

have  been  accompanied  by  a  decided  increase  each  year  in  the 
number  of  cattle  left  on  farms. 

In  a  recent  letter  to  members,  the  American  National  Live- 
stock Association  says  :— 

During  the  year  1917  the  number  of  cattle  sent  to  market 
for  slaughter  was  the  largest  in  history,  and  the  fact  that  our 
supply  on  January  1st,  1918,  showed  a  substantial  increase, 
despite  the  larger  slaughter,  is  convincing  evidence  that  at 
present  there  is  no  shortage  of  beef  cattle.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  1916,  the  shipment  of  hogs  to  market  during  1917  was 
the  largest  ever  recorded,  and  the  present  supply  exceeds  all 
previous  yearly  estimates.  .  .  . 

The  live-stock  industry  of  the  United  States  responded  to 
the  appeal  of  President  Wilson,  the  Food  Administration,  and 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  increased  production. 

More  and  more,  as  demands  grow,  do  the  greater  pro- 
duction of  live-stock  and  the  conservation  of  meat  become 
pressing  necessities.  While  there  has  been  a  numerical  in- 
crease in  live-stock  in  the  United  States  in  1917,  the  tendency 
of  farmers  to  ship  their  cattle  and  hogs  before  they  are  properly 
finished,  due  to  advanced  cost  of  feed  and  eagerness  to  get 
high  market  prices,  has  brought  about  a  decreased  poundage 
per  animal. 

The  records,  borne  out  by  those  of  the  industry  in  general, 
show  a  loss  of  weight  of  approximately  10  per  cent  in  1917  as 
compared  with  1916.  This  offsets  the  increase  in  numbers. 

During  1917  Armour  &  Company  paid  to  live-stock  pro- 
ducers in  the  United  States  alone  the  sum  of  341,743,275 
dollars  (£68,348,655)  for  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep,  or  109,167,133 
dollars  (£20,000,000)  more  than  a  similar  poundage  would  have 
cost  at  the  1915  scale  of  prices.  This  additional  sum  neces- 
sarily had  to  be  collected  from  consumers  to  be  turned  over  to 
producers. 

Obviously,  we  must  look  first  to  the  producer.  For  him  the 
Government  has  largely  taken  the  speculation  out  of  produc- 
tion, and  inasmuch  as  his  gains  are  assured  for  years  to  come, 
he  can  combine  patriotism  with  profit  by  increasing  and  im- 
proving his  herds. 

He   must  breed   for   quality  that  will  produce  maximum 


162  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

weight  in  the  shortest  time.  Every  unused  nook  and  corner 
of  his  farm  should  grow  feed  for  his  animals.  Surplus  dairy 
calves  should  be  fed  no  longer  than  is  necessary  to  bring  them 
to  the  veal  stage,  thus  conserving  feed,  while  beef  calves  should 
be  saved  and  brought  to  earliest  maturity. 

CENTRALIZED  LIVE-STOCK  MARKETING 

"  An  official  report  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  on 
the  causes  of  the  decline  of  the  pastoral  industry  in  the  United 
States -of -America  gives  the  following  interesting  account  of 
the  centralized  live-stock  marketing  system  engendered  under 
the  regime  of  the' American  meat- companies  : — 
•  "  The  largest  single  factor  in  the  marketing  of  meat  animals 
in  the  United  States  is  the ;  system  of .- centralised  live-stock 
markets;  wliich  has  no  counterpart  in  any  of  the  other  live- 
stock producing' countries  of  the  world.  -  Its  development  has 
'been  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that  the  live-stock  industry  is 
developed  mainly  in -the  central  and  western  parts  of  the 
country,  while  one-half  of  the  population  is  in  the  manufactur- 
ing region  east  of  the  Mississippi 'and  north  of  the  Ohio  and 
'Potomac  Rivers.-  The  exportation  of  meat  animals  and  meat 
produce  from  Atlantic  rivers  also  has  contributed  largely 
towards  •  the  centralisation  of  live-stock  markets  at  points 
intermediate  between  these  ports  and  the  areas  of  produc- 
tion. •  - 

"A  corollary  of-  the  unprecedented  development  of  our 
centralised  markets  which  generally  is  regarded  as  of  vital 
importance  '  is  » the  gradual  (concentration  of  ownership  and 
fcontrol:  of  -  the  stockyards,  terminal  facilities,  and  other  equip- 
'memV  and  related  interests-,  into  the  hands  of  the  small  group 
'of  packers- who  purchase  the  bulk 'of  the  meat  animals  sold  at 
these  markets.)  The  nature  and  extent  of  this  factor  in  the 
'situation  have  been  stated  by  Mr.  A.  E.  de  Ricqles,  Chairman 
'of-  the  Committee  on  Stockyards,  of  the  American  National 
•Live-Stock  Association,  at  a  hearing  conducted  by  this  office, 
as  follows  : —  -  - 

"  'The  first  thing  that  one  meets  in  looking  into  this  subject 
is  the  fact  that  the  ownership  of  practically  all  the  stockyard 


UNITED   STATES  165 

companies,  all  the  big  packing-houses,  the  cattle  loan  com- 
panies, stockyard  banks,  rendering  works,  and  similar  institu- 
tions found  at  stockyards,  are  owned  and  controlled  by  four 
or  five  individuals  ;  and  as  these  stockyards  are  what  establish 
the  price  of  live-stock  in  the  United  States,  it  follows  quite 
naturally  that  these  few  individuals  who  own  these  institutions 
are  in  a  position  to  control.  For  a  number  of  years  these 
individuals — and  it  is  no  harm  to  mention  their  names,  for 
they  are  so  familiar  to  all  of  us  that  they  come  into  our  minds 
immediately,  namely,  Armour,  Swift,  Morris,  Cudahy — were 
satisfied  with  the  packing-house  business,  and  limited  their 
operations  to  slaughtering  and  selling  meat  animals  and  their 
products  ;  however,  within  the  past  dozen  years  they  have 
been  acquiring  the  stockyard  companies,  establishing  cattle 
loan  companies,  and  other  market  enterprises  that,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  are  distinct  and  separate  from  the  slaughtering  business. 
They  own  stockyards  at  Kansas  City,  South  Omaha,  East 
St.  Louis,  St.  Joseph,  Sioux  City,  St.  Paul,  Oklahoma,  Fort 
Worth,  Portland  and  Denver. 

"  '  It  seems  reasonable  that  the  company  buying  your 
product  on  the  open  market  should  not  be  the  owner  of  the 
facilities  you  use  to  prepare  the  same  for  its  purchase  ;  or  that 
the  man  who  sells  your  product  should  not  be  indebted  and 
under  obligations  to  the  man  who  buys  it  ;  or  that  a  stockman 
who  borrows  money  should  not  borrow  money  for  feeding  from 
the  man  he  must  sell  to. 

"  '  For  controlling  prices  and  increasing  the  power  of  price- 
making,  the  ownership  of  a  stockyard  by  a  packing-house  is 
one  of  the  most  complete  means. 

"  '  If  the  owners  of  the  yard  company  are  the  same  people 
who  buy  the  cattle  every  day  from  the  commission  company, 
and  who  finance  the  commission  firm  through  a  cattle-loan 
company  or  bank,  the  situation  becomes  very  different,  for  the 
commission  merchant  must  be  on  good  terms  with  the  people 
who  buy  from  him,  and  he  fears  if  he  is  not  friendly  with  them 
that  they  may  discriminate  against  him. 

'  This  is  just  an  explanation  of  one  situation  that  to-day 
exists  at  most  of  the  markets  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is 
realised  not  only  by  the  commission  men  and  buyers  in  the 


166  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

yards,  but  it  is  understood  by  the  stockmen,  and  it  is  becoming 
intolerable.' 

"  The  principal  remedies  which  have  been  advanced  and 
advocated  for  the  improvement  of  these  conditions  were 
summarised  by  Mr.  T.  W.  Tomlinson,  Secretary  of  the 
American  National  Live  Stock  Association,  at  the  above- 
mentioned  hearing,  as  follows  : — 

"  '  (1)  A  more  even  distribution  of  receipts  on  five  days  of 
the  week.  This  would  prevent  delays  at  terminals,  and  enable 
the  business  to  be  transacted  at  less  expense. 

"  '  (2)  A  weekly  publication  by  the  Government  of  data  as 
to  the  meat  supply  on  hand'. 

"  '(3)  The  establishment  of  public  abattoirs  in  connection 
with  public  stockyards. 

"  '  (4)  Slaughterers  to  relinquish,  as  far  as  possible,  their 
interest  in  and  control  of  stockyards,  and  other  instrumental- 
ities involved  in  the  marketing  of  live-stock. 

"  '  (5)  Commission  houses  not  to  serve  as  both  seller  and 
buyer  of  the  same  stock,  and  to  sell  direct  to  country  purchasers. 

"  '  (6)  FEDERAL  AND  STATE  SUPERVISION  OF  THE  METHODS 
AND  PRACTICES  AT  THE  CENTRAL  MARKETS. 

"  '  (7)  A  GREATER  CO-OPERATION  TOWARDS  THE  END  or 
SECURING  UNRESTRICTED  COMPETITION.'  " 


IMPROVING  POWER  OF  THE  SHORTHORN 

An  excellent  article  by  Mr.  W.  R.  Goodwin  was  published 
recently  in  the  Shorthorn  World  on  the  "  Improving  Power  of 
the  Shorthorn."  This  applies  to  all  native  stock  everywhere. 

Says  Mr.  Goodwin  :  The  student  of  beef  cattle  breeding  will 
conclude  that  the  Shorthorn  is  not  only  the  cosmopolitan 
breed,  but  also  the  universal  improver  of  beef  stocks.  This 
fact  carries  a  tribute  and  imposes  an  obligation.  (In  some 
countries  the  Hereford,  Angus  and  Devon  will  be  found  more 
suitable  ;  it  greatly  depends  on  rainfall  and  condition  of 
country  and  pasture.)  Native  stocks  lack  beef  form — that 
form  which  in  the  feed  lots  of  the  world  has  been  proved  to 
grow  rapidly,  thrive  easily  and  produce  the  desirable  cuts  of 
beef  in  the  greatest  proportion  to  wastes.  Scale,  thrift,  and 


UNITED   STATES  167 

wide  and  level  form  are  the  requisites  of  a  profitable  beef 
producer.  The  grower  must  have  weight  at  the  finish,  the 
packer  must  have  flesh  that  will  cut  profitably.  The  founders 
of  the  Shorthorn  breed  lived  close  to  the  pasture,  the  feed-lot 
and  the  butcher,  evolving  in  their  ideals  a  type  that  met  the 
dual  requirements  of  the  producer  and  the  purveyor  of  prime 
beef.  Wherever  the  blood  touches  native  stocks  it  instantly 
registers  its  leavening  influence,  and  the  unimproved,  the 
scrub,  becomes  a  visibly  homogeneous  part  of  the  great  tribe 
of  thrifty  beef  makers  that  wears  the  colours  of  red,  white  and 
roan.  The  appeal  can  be  made  world-wide  and  ever  is  it 
answered  in  unison.  The  cosmopolitan  character  of  the  breed 
is  proved  in  its  distribution  that  ranges  more  widely  than  that 
of  any  other  improved  race  of  cattle,  and  its  power  of  universal 
betterment  is  registered  on  all  stocks  of  whatever  origin  or 
type  it  touches. 

The  first  cross  tells  the  tale.  The  Shorthorn  bull  brands 
indelibly  his  offspring  in  size,  levelness,  feeding  quality.  The 
history  of  cattle  improvement,  on  whatever  continent  it  is 
studied,  proves  the  vital  influence  of  Shorthorn  blood  in  its 
foundation-laying  first  cross.  On  that  foundation  other  breeds 
have  built,  to  the  great  satisfaction  of  breeders  who  have 
skilfully  crossed  and  carefully  grazed  and  fed,  and  these 
breeders,  wide-visioned,  broad-gauged,  fair-minded  men,  right 
cheerfully  accord  credit  to  the  Shorthorn  breed  for  its  foun- 
dation work. 

No  breed  has  so  essentially  earned  the  title  of  the  universal 
improver  of  native  stocks  as  the  Shorthorn.  The  blood  of  this 
breed  is  "  first  aid  to  the  injured,"  blending  kindly  and  effec- 
tively for  the  elimination  of  the  undesirable  characteristics  of 
the  primitive  types,  and  adding  size,  framework,  levelness  of 
flesh  and  aptitude  to  fatten.  Long  years  has  the  Shorthorn 
breed  held  this  honoured  position,  from  which  it  will  not  be 
displaced  by  any  other  breed  while  native  stocks  of  any 
country  or  clime  require  the  union  of  blood  which  will  lay  the 
foundation  for  profitable  feeding.  It  is  a  place  of  pride  and 
a  position  of  responsibility. 

The  obligation  laid  on  the  breed  is  no  less  conspicuous,  in- 
deed it  is  all  the  more  inexorable  because  of  the  unchallenged 


168  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

success  of  the  breed  in  the  work  of  improvement.  The  wide- 
rolling,  richly  grassed  ranges  of  America's  western  regions  have 
produced  and  fattened  the  beef  of  the  past  quarter  of  a  century. 
Some  of  it  has  been  finished  in  the  rich  central  valleys  ;  much 
of  it  has  been  grown  on  the  grasses  of  the  plains.  In  the 
development  of  this  land  vital  changes  are  of  almost  constant 
record.  With  the  transformation  of  open  range  to  fenced 
pastures  and  thence  to  farms,  all  in  touch  with  the  industry 
are  familiar.  The  country  suddenly  awakened  and  found  itself 
short  of  beef. 

Time  was  when  the  farm  cow  of  America  supplied  the  beef 
and  the  milk,  and  that  cow  was  of  Shorthorn  blood.  The 
advance  in  food  values  anfl  the  competition  of  the  range  herds, 
which  laid  down  calves  off  free  grass  at  central  markets  at 
prices  with  which  farm -raised  calves  could  not  compete,  drove 
the  cows  that  bred  feed-lot  calves  largely  from  the  farms  of 
the  central  west.  A  cow  could  not  be  kept  for  the  value  of 
her  feedyard  progeny.  Farmers  drifted  with  the  tide,  which 
has  now  receded  and  left  many  of  them  aground. 

Conditions  have  changed  back  again.  Augmented  popula- 
tion, coupled  with  decreased  beef  supplies  from  the  ranges, 
opens  the  door  to  profitable  farm  breeding  of  beef  calves. 
This  may  be  done  on  the  cheaper,  rough  and  broken  lands 
with  a  purely  beef  cow,  but  it  is  readily  accomplished  on  the 
richer  lands  of  higher  value  with  the  real  farmer's  cow,  the 
cow  that  more  than  pays  her  way  at  the  pail  while  producing 
a  prime  feed -lot  prospect.  That  cow  has  been,  still  is,  and  will 
continue  to  be  the  Shorthorn  dual-purpose  cow,  unless  the 
obligation  which  lies  at  the  door  of  the  Shorthorn  Association 
and  Shorthorn  breeders  is  deliberately  shirked.  It  may  have 
been  overlooked  in  times  past.  Men  of  great  faith  kept  the 
fires  burning  on  the  original  altars,  however,  conscious  and 
confident  that  over  vast  stretches  of  our  farming  country  the 
dual-purpose  cow  had  her  place  despite  the  competition  from 
the  open  ranges,  and  convinced  that  the  day  would  come 
when  a  great  light  would  shine  on  the  understanding  of  Ameri- 
can farmers,  and  they  would  turn  eagerly  to  the  big,  level- 
framed,  placid -eyed  red,  white  or  roan  cow,  possessed  of  the 
dual  capacity  for  milk  and  meat  production,  according  to  her 


UNITED   STATES  171 

development  and  education,  and  standing  as  a  foundation 
stone  of  profitable  American  agriculture.  The  obligation  to 
restore  that  cow  to  her  place  of  prime  importance  in  profitable 
small  farm  production  rests  on  adherents  of  the  Shorthorn 
breed.  It  never  more  insistently  demanded  recognition  than 
in  this  time  of  world- throes,  and  in  the  coming  period  when 
the  back  of  mankind  will  be  bent  under  the  burden  of  a  torn 
world's  restoration. 


BREEDS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

SHORTHORNS 

The  decrease  in  the  number  of  beef  animals  in  the  United 
States,  with  the  resulting  high  prices  which  have  prevailed 
during  recent  years,  has  caused  greater  interest  to  be  taken  in 
this  industry,  and  many  men  who  have  never  raised  beef  cattle 
in  the  past  are  taking  up  this  line  of  work. 

The  breeds  of  beef  cattle  in  the  United  States  are  the  Short- 
horn, Polled  Durham,  Hereford,  Aberdeen-Angus  and  Gallo- 
way. Each  of  these  breeds  has  been  carefully  developed  for 
a  long  period  of  years,  with  the  result  that  individuals  transmit 
their  characters  very  readily  when  bred  to  native  or  scrub 
cattle.  i 

The  Shorthorn  is  the  most  popular  of  the  beef  breeds  in  the 
United  States,  as  shown  by  their  numbers  and  by  their  general 
distribution  over  all  parts  of  the  country.  They  have  a  great 
range  of  adaptability  and  do  well  everywhere.  The  milking 
qualities,  combined  with  the  high  standard  as  a  beef  animal 
and  the  gentle  disposition,  have  caused  the  Shorthorn  cow  to 
be  termed  "  the  farmer's  cow  "  in  the  United  States.  The 
merit  of  the  breed  has  been  proved  on  the  ranges  of  the  west, 
where  the  bulls  have  been  used  for  grading  up  the  scrub  cattle 
of  the  plains.  The  Shorthorn  crosses  well  with  other  breeds 
or v  with  the  scrub  cattle,  producing  from  scrub  cows  calves 
which  develop  into  fairly  desirable  beef  cattle.  The  grazing 
ability  of  the  Shorthorn  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  some  of  the 
other  breeds,  but  where  glasses  are  abundant  and  feeds  are 
plentiful  there  is  no  breed  which  will  surpass  it  for  beef  pro- 


172  THE   WORLD'S   MEAT   FUTURE 

duction.  The  large  milk  flow  insures  a  good  calf.  However, 
the  cows  have  been  criticised  to  a  certain  extent  by  western 
ranchmen  because  the  large  milk  flow  causes  many  of  them 
to  lose  a  teat  or  a  portion  of  the  udder,  as  the  calves  cannot 
always  take  all  of  the  milk.  The  steers  sell  readily  as  feeders, 
and  although  they  have  not  won  as  readily  as  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus  in  the  show  ring,  they  produce  very  high-class  beef, 
with  the  thick  loin  and  full  hindquarter  which  furnish  profit- 
able cuts. 

The  three  important  strains  of  Shorthorn  cattle  have  been 
the  Booth,  the  Bates,  and  the  Scotch  tribes.  The  Booth  and 
Scotch  strains  represent  the  true  beef  type  of  Shorthorns, 
while  the  Bates  approaches  the  dual-purpose  type.  Bulls 
attain  a  weight  of  1800  to  2200  pounds  or  more,  while  the 
mature  cows  usually  weigh  from  1300  to  1600  pounds  when 
raised  under  favourable  conditions.  Greater  weight  in  both 
cows  and  bulls  is  not  rare,  but  extremely  heavy  animals  are 
not  especially  desired. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Ward,  Senior  Animal  Husbandman  in  Beef  Cattle 
Investigations,  U.S.A.,  in  a  pamphlet  issued  to  farmers,  says  : — 

"  In  conformation,  the  Shorthorn  is  of  the  true  beef  type, 
being  wide,  deep,  lengthy,  and  thickly  fleshed.  The  great 
width  of  the  Shorthorns,  combined  with  their  depth,  gives 
them  a  more  rectangular  form  than  any  of  the  other  breeds, 
while  the  wide  variation  in  the  distribution  of  the  breed  has 
caused  a  slightly  greater  difference  in  type  to  be  recognised 
than  in  other  beef  breeds.  In  the  cow  the  following  points 
should  be  noted  :  The  horn  is  usually  small  and  curved  for- 
ward, with  the  tips  pointing  inward,  upward,  or  sometimes 
downward,  and  they  should  be  of  a  waxy,  yellowish  colour. 
The  head  should  be  shapely,  with  great  width  between  the 
eyes,  short  from  the  eyes  to  the  muzzle,  which  should  be  large 
and  flesh-coloured,  with  large  nostrils  ;  a  black  muzzle  is 
objectionable  to  most  breeders.  The  neck  should  be  short 
and  full,  blending  well  into  head  and  shoulder.  The  shoulders 
should  be  smooth  and  well  covered  with  flesh,  the  crops  should 
be  full,  the  heart  girth  should  be  large,  and  the  fore  flank  low. 
The  chest  should  be  wide  and  deep,  with  the  brisket  thick  and 
well  to  the  front.  The  ribs  are  usually  well  sprung  and  the 


UNITED   STATES  175 

barrel  well  developed.  In  good  individuals  the  back  is  broad 
and  the  loin  is  wide,  deep  and  thickly  fleshed.  The  hips  are 
wide  and  should  be  well  covered  with  flesh  ;  the  rump  is  long, 
wide,  and  level,  carrying  an  abundance  of  flesh.  The  hind- 
quarter  is  better  developed  in  the  Shorthorn  than  in  any  other 
breed  ;  it  is  characteristic  in  that  it  is  almost  straight  from  the 
root  of  the  tail  to  the  hocks,  and  is  wide  and  thick,  carrying 
the  flesh  well  down,  thus  giving  a  maximum  amount  of  flesh. 
The  flank  is  low,  the  udder  is  usually  well  developed,  extending 
well  forward,  with  prominent  milk  veins.  The  teats  are  of 
medium  size. 

"  The  bull  should  possess  the  same  desirable  features  as  the 
female,  without  her  feminine  qualities.  He  should  show  mas- 
culinity by  developing  a  heavier  horn,  a  larger  and  thicker  neck, 
a  heavier  bone  throughout,  and  greater  depth,  thickness  and 
scale.  His  horns  are  straighter  and  heavier  than  the  cow's, 
but  they  should  not  show  coarseness. 

"  The  Shorthorn  has  sometimes  been  criticised  because  of 
poor  development  or  lack  of  f ulness  in  the  crops,  a  high  fore 
flank  and  a  poorly  developed  heart  girth.  They  are  sometimes 
rather  leggy,  although  animals  of  Scotch  breeding  are  usually 
thick  fleshed  and  low  set.  There  has  been  a  tendency  to  patchi- 
ness  near  the  root  of  the  tail  and  to  rolls  on  the  sides,  but  the 
breed  is  improving  in  this  respect  in  that  the  animals  are  be- 
coming more  smooth." 

The  American  Shorthorn  Breeders'  Association  considers 
that  the  ten  bulls  which  have  probably  done  most  for  the 
improvement  of  Shorthorn  cattle  as  a  breed  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  are  as  follows  :  Whitehall  Sultan  163573,  Choice  Goods 
186802,  Cumberland's  Last  229822,  Avondale  245144,  March 
Knight  188105,  Villager  295884,  Cumberland  118578,  Merry 
Hampton  132572,  Lord  Banff  150718  and  Whitehall  Marshall 
209776.  The  most  popular  families  of  Shorthorns  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time  are  Augustas,  Missies,  Victorias, 
Duchess  of  Glosters  and  Orange  Blossoms. 

The  Polled  Durham  is  a  Polled  Shorthorn.  There  are  two 
general  divisions  of  this  breed,  the  "  single  standard  "  and  the 
"double  standard."  The  single-standard  Polled  Durhams 
were  produced  by  breeding  "  muley  "  cows  to  Shorthorn  bulls, 


176  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

selecting  the  polled  offspring  and  breeding  these  to  other 
Shorthorn  bulls.  This  grading  up  was  continued  until  the 
polled  offspring  was  brought  to  the  fifth  cross  which  contained 
96|  per  cent  or  more  of  Shorthorn  blood,  and  which  qualified 
for  entry  in  the  Polled  Durham  herd  book.  The  resulting  pro- 
geny resembled  the  Shorthorns,-  but  were  rather  leggy,  lacked 
a  thick  smooth  covering  of  flesh,  and  inclined  more  to  the  dual- 
purpose  type  of  animals.  These  cattle  could  be  registered  in 
the  Polled  Durham  herd  book,  but  were  not  eligible  for  regis- 
tration in  the  American  Shorthorn  herd  book. 

The  double-standard  Polled  Durhams  were  secured  by  using 
purebred  Shorthorn  cows  that  were  either  natural  muley  or 
had  undeveloped  horns,  for  breeding  to  Shorthorn  bulls.  The 
double-standard  Polled  Durhams  are  purebred  Shorthorns, 
and  can  be  registered  in  either  the  Shorthorn  or  the  Polled 
Durham  herd  books.  The  double-standard  Polled  Durhams 
were  bred  chiefly  from  the  Gwynne,  White  Rose  and  Young 
Phyllis  families  of  Shorthorns. 

This  breed  is  similar  to  the  Shorthorn  in  every  way  except 
that  it  is  hornless.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  breed  of  cattle, 
and  has  not  become  so  popular  as  the  older  breeds,  but  it  is 
increasing  in  popularity.  They  will  do  well  under  the  same 
conditions  which  favour'  the  production  of  good  Shorthorns. 
Some  breeders  have  developed  the  dual-purpose  qualities  in 
the  animals,  with  the  result  that  there  is  considerable  variation 
in  type. 

THE  HEREFORD 

The  Hereford  ranks  next  to  the  Shorthorn  in  numbers  in 
the  United  States  of  America.  Their  popularity  is  constantly 
increasing,  especially  where  cattle  are  raised  under  range  or 
pdverse  conditions.  As  a  "  rustler  "  the  Hereford  is  surpassed 
by  no  breed  of  beef  cattle,  and  they  have  been  recognised  as 
responding  readily  to  a  favourable  environment  as  well  as 
being  able  to  thrive  under  adverse  conditions  where  other 
breeds  would  not  do  so  well.  On  scant  pastures  and  on  the 
range  where  waterholes  are  far  apart  the  Hereford  has  shown 
its  merit.  The  bulls  are  active,  vigorous,  prepotent  and  very 
sure  breeders. 


UNITED   STATES  177 

Formerly,  the  Hereford  was  severely  criticised  because  of  a 
light  hindquarter,  but  the  breed  has  improved  wonderfully  in 
overcoming  this  defect  during  the  last  two  decades.  It  is  now 
somewhat  less  rangy,  more  compact,  and  heavier  fleshed 
than  formerly.  The  Hereford  cows  have  also  been  criticised 
because  of  their  scanty  milk  flow,  but  they  usually  produce 
enough  to  raise  a  good  calf.  The  Hereford  of  the  States  has 
a  fuller  heart  girth,  stronger  constitution,  and  can  with- 
stand adverse  conditions  better  than  the  Shorthorn.  They 
are  early  maturing,  and  fatten  readily  in  the  feed -lot. 

The  weight  of  the  Hereford  is  practically  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Shorthorn.  Mature  bulls  weigh  from  1800  to  2200  Ibs. 
or  more,  while  good  cows  weigh  from  1200  to  1600  Ibs.,  although 
it  is  not  unusual  for  mature  animals  of  either  sex  to  weigh  more 
than  stated. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Ward,  Senior  Animal  Husbandman  in  Beef  Cattle 
Investigations,  -U.S.A.,  says  : — 

"  In  colour  the  Hereford  is  red  with  white  markings.  The 
white  markings  usually  consist  of  a  white  face  and  head,  the 
white  extending  along  the  top  of  the  neck  and  shoulders, 
a  white  throat  and  dewlap,  arid  white  on  the  underline. 
Frequently,  however,  no  white  is  found  on  the  neck  or  top  of 
shoulders.  White  is  sometimes  found  on  other  parts  of  the 
body  ;  and,  while  it  is  permissible,  it  is  not  desirable.  A 
pure  white  face  is  usually  preferred,  although  many  purebred 
animals  show  spots  about  the  face  and  especially  some  red 
around  the  eyes.  The  red  colour  of  the  body  varies  from  a 
light  red  approaching  yellow  in  colour  to  a  very  dark  red  ap- 
proaching black.  Neither  the  light  red  nor  the  blackish  red 
colour  is  desirable,  a  rich  deep  red  being  the  most  popular. 
The  hair  is  usually  of  medium  length  with  a  curly  tendency, 
although  short-haired  animals  are  common. 

"  The  general  formation  of  the  Hereford  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Shorthorn,  except  that  the  rectangular  form  is  not  quite 
so  pronounced  and  the  prominent  bones  are  more  smoothly 
covered.  The  form  is  low,  compact,  and  blocky,  with  well- 
sprung  ribs,  broad  loin,  and  wide  hips,  without  the  prominent 
hip  bones  of  the  Shorthorn,  and  with  a  more  rounded  and 
bulging  quarter,  although  developed  to  a  lesser  degree  in  this 


178  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

respect  than  the  Aberdeen- Angus.  The  head  is  broad  and 
short,  with  large  nostrils,  and  large  muzzle  and  mouth,  which 
are  indications  of  a  good  feeder.  The  horn  is  longer  and  some- 
what coarser  than  the  Shorthorn,  white  in  colour  with  waxy 
tips,  and  curves  outward,  upward,  and  backward,  or  outward 
and  forward  and  occasionally  they  are  drooping.  The  horns 
of  the  bull  are  straighter  and  heavier,  and  usually  grow  out- 
ward, frequently  growing  forward,  backward,  or  downward, 
but  seldom  growing  upward.  The  neck  is  short,  thick,  and 
blends  well  with  the  shoulder.  Great  width,  depth,  and  length 
of  chest  and  a  fulness  of  the  crops  give  the  Herefords  their 
constitution  and  endurance,  which  the  breeders  have  been 
careful  to  preserve.  The  loin  is  full  and  deep,  and  the  rump 
and  hind  quarter  are  usually  well  developed,  carrying  a  large 
amount  of  flesh.  This  portion  of  the  body  has  been  greatly 
improved  within  recent  years,  and  the  tendency  to  rough- 
ness and  patchiness  has  been  reduced  until  the  breed  now 
stands  out  as  one  showing  extreme  beef  type,  with  smoothness 
of  form  and  much  quality.  For  these  reasons,  combined  with 
their  rustling  abilities,  the  Hereford  has  become  the  most 
popular  breed  for  improving  range  stock.  The  effect  of  using 
Hereford  bulls  for  this  purpose  has  had  a  great  attraction  for 
cattlemen  in  the  south-west,  especially  in  the  Panhandle  region 
of  Texas." 

The  Herefords  do  well  in  the  southern  States,  as  the  heat 
there  seems  to  bother  them  no  more  than  it  does  in  the  corn 
,belt.  They  seem  to  be  especially  adapted  for  use  on  the 
larger  plantations,  where  animals  are  not  given  extremely 
good  care,  and  where  the  production  of  beef  alone  is  desired. 
Two  or  three  crosses  on  the  native  stock  of  the  south  produce 
a  good  beef  animal  that  matures  early  and  fattens  out  well. 
On  plantations  especially,  or  on  farms  with  only  fairly  good  pas- 
tures, the  Hereford  will  give  better  results  than  the  Shorthorn. 

The  American  Hereford  Cattle  Breeders'  Association  men- 
tions the  following  as  some  of  the  bulls  which  have  been  most 
influential  in  improving  the  Hereford  breed  in  the  last  fifteen 
years  :  Perfection  Fairfax,  Beau  Donald,  Beau  Brummel,  Cor- 
rector, Disturber,  Bonnie  Brae  8th,  Perfection,  March  On  6th, 
Prime  Lad,  and  Repeater. 


UNITED   STATES  179 

POLLED  HEREFORDS 

The  Polled  Hereford  is  a  new  breed  developed  by  selecting 
and  breeding  Herefords  which  showed  polled  characteristics. 
The  double-standard  Polled  Herefords  are  purebred  Herefords 
which  are  hornless  and  are  eligible  to  registry  in  either  the 
American  Hereford  herd  book  or  the  American  Polled  Hereford 
record.  They  differ  in  no  way  from  the  Hereford  except  that 
they  have  no  horns.  The  polled  feature  has  been  well  fixed, 
and  the  bulls  when  mated  with  native  cattle  sire  few  calves 
having  either  long  scurs  or  horns. 

ABERDEEN-ANGUS 

Aberdeen- Angus  cattle  are  solid  black  in  colour,  and  have 
no  horns.  These  characteristics  are  so  strongly  developed  that 
a  bull,  when  bred  to  horned  cows  of  various  colours,  will 
usually  produce  calves  of  which  85  per  cent  or  more  are  black 
in  colour  and  hornless.  Occasionally  a  red  animal  is  found  in 
this  breed,  but  the  colour  is  not  popular  among  breeders. 
Although  the  Aberdeen- Angus  is  an  old  breed,  it  is  only  within 
recent  years  that  it  has  been  so  popular  in  the  United  States. 
While  they  are  good  rustlers,  they  have  never  been  as  popular 
on  the  ranges  of  the  west  as  either  the  Hereford  or  the  Short- 
horn. They  stand  next  to  the  Hereford  and  above  the  Short- 
horn as  graziers  on  scanty  pastures.  This  breed  is  extremely 
valuable  for  grading  up  native  cattle,  but  they  have  been 
criticised  to  a  certain  extent  by  rangemen  because  they  do  not 
get  a  greater  percentage  of  calves.  This  has  usually  been  true 
where  they  have  been  in  a  herd  with  horned  bulls.  If  all  the 
bulls  were  either  polled  or  dehorned  there  would  doubtless  be 
less  ground  for  this  criticism.  The  milking  qualities  of  the 
cows  are  only  fair  ;  they  give  more  milk  than  the  Hereford, 
but  not  as  much  as  the  Shorthorn*  A  sufficient  quantity  of 
milk  is  produced  to  raise  a  good  calf. 

This  breed  is  very  early  maturing,  and  has  a  tendency  to 
fatten  well  at  any  age,  hence  their  popularity  for  producing 
baby  beef.  In  general  form  they  are  different  from  the  Short- 
horn and  Hereford.  The  body  is  more  cylindrical  in  shape, 


180  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

and  they  are  smoother  throughout  than  either  of  the  breeds 
named.  The  Angus  responds  quickly  to  good  treatment,  and, 
because  of  its  readiness  t6  fatten,  early  maturity,  excep- 
tional vigour,  high  quality,  general  smoothness  and  uniformity, 
and  the  high  percentage  of  valuable  meat  produced,  it  is  the 
most  popular  of  all  beef  breeds  among  cattle  feeders.  They 
usually  dress  out  a  higher  percentage  of  marketable  meat  than 
any  other  breed,  and  their  merit  has  been  shown  by  the  re- 
peated winnings  they  have  made  in  the  show-ring  and  on  the 
block. 

They  stand  either  heat  or  cold  well,  and  are  popular  in  the 
south  as  well  as  in  the  corn  belt.  Because  of  their  reputation 
for  finishing  smoothly  and  killing  out  well  they  are  very  popu- 
lar in  the  corn  belt  and  neighbouring  states,  where  much  feed- 
ing is  done.  They  are  becoming  more  favoured  in  the  south, 
and  rank  next  to  the  Hereford  and  above  the  Shorthorn  in 
their  general  adaptability  to  average  southern  conditions. 

Mr.  W.  F.  Ward  says  :  "  The  head  of  the  Angus  shows  a 
sharp  tapered  poll,  great  breadth  between  the  eyes,  a  promi- 
nent forehead,  prominent  eyes,  a  nose  of  medium  length,  a 
large  mouth  and  muzzle,  and  large  nostrils.  They  are  more 
restless  or  nervous  than  the  Shorthorn.  The  neck  is  short, 
full,  and  has  a  well-developed  crest  in  the  bull,  but  it  does  not 
always  blend  smoothly  with  the  shoulders,  which  are  some- 
times a  little  prominent.  The  chest  shows  great  depth,  width 
and  length.  The  body  is  cylindrical  in  shape,  and  does  not 
show  the  squareness  or  blockiness  of  the  Shorthorn  and  the 
Hereford,  but  is  noted  for  its  compactness  and  good  covering 
of  flesh.  The  ribs  are  well  sprung,  curved,  and  long,  giving 
the  cylindrical  form  to  the  body.  The  loin  and  rump  are  well 
fleshed  and  deeply  covered,  but  entirely  different  in  shape 
from  the  Shorthorn,  as  the  great  width  and  squareness  are 
absent.  The  deep  covering  of  flesh  of  the  rump,  the  smallness 
of  bone,  and  the  deep  rounding,  bulging  hindquarter  gives  a 
maximum  amount  of  meat.  Note  the  difference  in  the  hind- 
quarter  of  the  Angus  and  the  Shorthorn.  The  latter  is  broad 
and  straight  from  pin  bones  to  the  hock,  while  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus  has  less  breadth  and  a  very  rounded  bulging  quarter 
with  a  deep  twist.  The  Angus  is  not  so  low  in  the  flank  as 


UNITED   STATES  181 

the  Shorthorn,  and  some  individuals  are  light  in  the  hind- 
quarter. 

"The  quality  of  the  animal  is  unsurpassed,  as  shown  by  the 
soft,  pliable,  mellow  skin  and  fine  hair.  The  meat  is  fine- 
grained and  of  the  highest  quality.  The  constitution  and  vigour 
of  this  breed  as  indicated  by  well-developed  chest  and  good 
heart  girth  are  worthy  of  mention.  For  grading  up  native 
stock  and  for  crossing,  they  hold  an  enviable  record." 

THE  GALLOWAY 

The  Galloway  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  cattle.  They 
are  polled,  solid  black  in  colour,  though  occasionally  some 
brown  is  shown,  and  have  a  long,  curly,  silky  coat.  This  breed 
is  very  prepotent,  and  transmits  the  black  colour  and  polled 
characteristics  readily  to  offspring  from  cows  of  any  colour.  As 
high  as  90  per  cent  of  the  calves  from  various-coloured  cows 
are  black,  and  from  95  to  99  per  cent  of  the  offspring  from 
horned  cows  are  polled.  This  breed  is  slow  maturing  when 
compared  with  the  Aberdeen -Angus  or  the  Hereford.  In  size 
they  are  smaller  than  any  of  the  other  beef  breeds.  Mature 
bulls  usually  weigh  from  1700  to  1900  Ibs.,  while  the  mature 
cows  weigh  from  1000  to  1300  Ibs.  each. 

These  cattle  are  exceedingly  good  rustlers,  not  being  excelled 
by  any  other  beef  breed  in  this  respect,  and  their  long  silky 
coat  of  hair  enables  them  to  stand  severe  weather  with  little 
discomfort.  For  these  reasons  they  have  proved  to  be  very 
valuable  on  some  of  the  ranges  of  the  north-west  and  of  Canada. 
They  do  not  respond  so  readily  to  good  treatment  and  to 
plenty  of  feed  as  do  the  other  breeds,  and  have  therefore  not 
become  popular  in  the  corn-belt  States. 

In  form  they  are  low  set  and  deep,  but  are  proportionately 
longer  than  the  Aberdeen- Angus  and  flatter  of  rib.  The  head 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Angus,  except  that  the  poll 
is  not  so  sharp.  The  head  is  covered  with  long  wavy  hair, 
and  the  ear  is  set  farther  back  from  the  forehead.  The  body 
is  long  and  of  medium  depth.  The  rump  is  long  and  well  filled, 
although  the  tail  head  is  usually  set  rather  high.  The  hind- 
quarter  is  usually  good,  being  full,  similar  to  that  of  the  Angus. 


182  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

The  bone  is  fine,  the  skin*  mellow,  the  hair  soft  and  silky,  and 
the  grain  of  the  meat  is  fine  and  high  in  quality.  Little  atten- 
tion has  been  devoted  to  the  milking  qualities  of  Galloway 
cows,  but  they  give  enough  milk  to  raise  a  good  calf.  The  milk 
is  regarded  as  ranking  high  in  butter-fat,  and  having  good 
quality.  The  Galloways  have  commanded  especial  attention 
because  of  their  prepotency  and  the  uniformity  of  the  offspring 
when  the  bulls  are  used  for  grading  up  or  for  crossing. 

This  breed  will  probably  never  be  very  popular  in  the 
United  States  except  in  the  north-west,  where  climatic  con- 
ditions are  severe  and  the  range  grasses  are  often  scant.  In 
that  section,  however,  the  bulls  could  be  used  advantageously 
for  grading  up  native  stock. 

DUAL-PURPOSE  BREEDS 

The  dual-purpose  cattle  have  been  bred  to  produce  females 
which  would  yield  a  good  quantity  of  milk  and  produce  off- 
spring which  would  be  desirable  for  beef.  As  the  type  of 
animal  necessary  for  the  production  of  large  yields  of  milk  is 
entirely  different  from  that  of  the  beef  animals,  it  has  been 
impossible  to  produce  a  breed  which  would  combine  these 
functions  and  be  of  superior  merit  for  both  purposes.  The 
dual-purpose  animal  may,  however,  be  a  desirable  milker  and 
at  the  same  time  produce  calves  which  make  good,  though  not 
superior,  beef  animals.  As  there  has  been  a  constant  tendency 
for  some  breeders  to  incline  more  to  the  dairy  type  of  animals, 
while  others  prefer  to  develop  the  beef  tendencies,  there  has 
been,  and  probably  always  will  be,  a  wide  variation  in  the  type 
of  dual-purpose  animals.  They  are  not  so  uniform  in  confor- 
mation as  either  the  strictly  bee.f  or  dairy  breeds.  Most  breeders 
prefer  to  use  cows  which  approach  the  dairy  type  nearer  than 
the  beef  type  and  to  use  a  bull  of  the  beef  type  that  had  a 
dam  with  a  good  milk  record.  The  offspring  of  such  cattle 
necessarily  cannot  be  of  as  uniform  type  as  the  breeds  which 
have  but  one  function  to  perform. 

The  dual-purpose  cattle  are  popular  with  the  small  farmer, 
who  keeps  but  a  few  cattle,  and  must  depend  upon  them  to 
produce  all  the  milk  and  butter  needed  for  the  family,  and  at 


UNITED   STATES  183 

the  same  time  raise  calves  or  steers  which  will  sell  readily  for 
slaughter  purposes.  They  have  not  been  popular  with  the 
ranchman  or  farmer  who  raises  large  numbers  of  cattle. 

The  principal  dual-purpose  breeds  in  the  United  States  are 
certain  types  of  the  Shorthorn,  together  with  the  Red  Polls 
and  Devons. 

SHORTHORNS 

The  dual-purpose  Shorthorn  is  more  popular  than  any  of 
the  other  dual-purpose  breeds.  They  respond  readily  to  good 
treatment,  and  have  become  exceedingly  popular  with  the 
small  farmer.  Formerly  these  cattle  were  almost  entirely  of 
the  Bates  strain,  but  at  the  present  time  many  of  them  contain 
considerable  Scotch  blood.  As  a  breed  they  are  the  same  as 
the  beef -bred  Shorthorns,  except  that  the  beefy  tendency  is 
not  so  strongly  emphasised.  The  milking  qualities  have  been 
developed,  and  the  cows  have  a  conformation  approaching 
the  regular  dual-purpose  form,  being  longer  of  limb,  higher  in 
flank,  larger  in  barrel,  and  thinner  in  hams  than  the  beef 
Shorthorns.  The  bulls  approach  the  beef  type  more  than  the 
cows,  but  are  lighter  in  the  hindquarter  and  a  little  higher  in 
flank  and  not  so  heavily  fleshed  as  the  strictly  beef  type.  The 
udder  extends  high  up  in  the  back  and  well  forward,  the  milk 
veins  are  usually  very  prominent,  and  the  teats  are  medium 
to  large  in  size  and  are  well  set.  Calves  from  the  cows  by  a  well- 
fleshed  bull  usually  grow  and  fatten  well  and  make  a  good 
quality  of  beef. 

RED  POLLS 

The  Red-Polled  cattle  originated  in  England,  and  were  in- 
troduced into  the  U.S.A.  in  1873,  but  few  importations  were 
made  until  about  1885.  Since  that  time  many  have  been 
imported.  This  is  strictly  a  dual-purpose  breed,  and  ap- 
proaches the  ideal  of  the  dual-purpose  type.  In  size  they  are 
smaller  than  the  beef  breeds,  and  have  not  the  thick  covering 
of  flesh.  Mature  bulls  -weigh  from  1700  to  2100  Ibs.  or  more, 
and  the  cows  from  1100  to  1350  Ibs.  or  more.'  Occasionally 
very  heavy  individuals  are  found,  but  these  are  the  exception 
and  not  the  rule. 


184  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

The  cattle  of  this  breed  are  fair  grazers,  ranking  with  or 
slightly  ahead  of  the  Shorthorns  but  not  equal  to  the  Devon 
or  Hereford.  They  are  very  prepotent  and  give  uniformity 
in  offspring  when  bred  to  native  cows.  Like  all  dual-purpose 
breeds,  it  has  been  hard  to  fix  or  to  hold  a  uniform  type,  as 
many  breeders  incline  to  beef  production,  while  others  try  to 
develop  the  milking  qualities  to  the  detriment  of  the  beef  form. 

The  breed  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  early  maturity, 
easy  fleshing  qualities,  and  for  a  fair  to  good  milk  flow.  The 
steers  have  attracted  attention  and  sold  for  high  prices  on 
English  markets  for  years,  and  have  made  very  creditable 
showings  in  America.  They  make  good  daily  gains  and 
lay  on  flesh  evenly.  They  are  usually  rather  leggy,  and  lack 
the  heavy  fleshing  qualities  of  the  beef  breeds.  The  hind- 
quarters are  less  well-developed,  with  a  tendency  toward  a 
rather  thin  thigh  and  a  high  flank  and  twist. 

The  milking  qualities  of  the  breed  are  fair.  Many  of  the  cows 
average  over  5000  Ibs.  of  milk  a  year.  The  cows  flesh  up 
readily  when  dry. 

In  conformation  these  cattle  resemble  the  Devon.  The  head 
is  lean,  medium  in  length,  with  a  well-defined  poll,  covered 
with  a  nice  tuft  of  hair  of  medium  length.  The  neck  is  longer 
and  thinner  than  in  the  beef  breeds,  and  does  not  blend  with 
the  shoulders  so  nicely.  The  chest  is  unusually  well  developed 
and  the  ribs  well  sprung,  though  lacking  in  a  thick  covering  of 
flesh.  The  barrel  is  developed  to  a  greater  extent  than  with 
the  beef  breeds,  and  the  loin  and  hind  quarter  are  lighter  fleshed. 
The  bone  is  of  medium  size.  The  skin  is  thin,  soft,  and  pliable, 
and  the  hair  is  short  and  fine,  showing  quality.  The  colour 
ranges  from  light  red  to  dark  red,  but  a  deep,  rich  red  is  pre- 
ferred throughout,  although  a  little  white  on  the  udder  or 
underline  and  a  white  brush  are  permissible.  The  udder  is 
well  developed  in  the  back,  but  does  not  come  forward  well ; 
it  is  "  chopped  off,"  and  the  tendency  is  to  develop  large  teats. 
The  milk  veins  are  prominent  and  of  fair  size. 

The  Red  Polls  are  more  nervous  than  the  Shorthorn,  but  less 
so  than  the  Aberdeen- Angus.  As  this  is  a  comparatively 
young  breed,  they  are  not  so  popular  as  the  older  breeds.  As 
dual-purpose  cattle  they  are  hard  to  excel. 


UNITED   STATES  185 

DEVONS 

Devons,  one  of  the  oldest  breeds  of  cattle,  were  introduced 
into  the  United  States  at  an  early  date,  and  became  popular 
in  New  England  and  in  parts  of  Virginia  nearly  a  century 
ago.  The  cows  were  good  milkers,  and  the  steers  were  used 
as  work  oxen  or  for  beef,  and  filled  either  place  admirably. 
They  are  exceedingly  good  rustlers,  are  vigorous,  hardy,  with- 
stand both  heat  and  cold  well,  and  are  very  prepotent.  For 
these  reasons  they  were  popular  with  the  people  of  New 
England.  They  are  slower  of  growth  than  any  of  the  beef 
breeds  except  the  Galloway.  Their  endurance,  intelligence, 
and  their  gameness  have  made  them  popular  as  work  oxen 
wherever  they  have  been  tried — no  breed  excels  them  in  this 
respect. 

In  size  they  are  somewhat  smaller  than  the  Red  Polled, 
mature  bulls  weighing  from  1500  to  2000,  and  cows  from  1100 
to  1400  pounds  or  more.  They  are  solid  red  in  colour,  white 
being  permitted  only  on  the  udder,  or  near  the  scrotum  of  the 
male,  and  on  the  switch  of  the  tail.  The  shade  of  red  varies, 
but  a  rich  bright  red  is  preferred.  In  conformation  the  Devons 
incline  more  to  the  beef  type  than  to  the  dual-purpose  type. 
They  are  close  coupled,  very  compact,  smooth,  and  rank  high 
in  quality  and  style.  They  have  small  bone,  which  is  hard 
and  compact,  giving  a  slender,  fine  leg. 

The  head  is  lean,  clean  cut,  of  medium  length,  and  sur- 
mounted by  rather  long  white  or  waxy  horns,  which  curve 
upward,  forward,  outward,  and  backward  in  the  cow,  and  are 
almost  straight  in  the  bull.  The  horns  of  the  steers  are  large, 
long,  and  often  widespread,  usually  being  very  white  or 
waxy,  with  dark  tips.  The  neck  is  medium  in  length,  smooth, 
and  blends  nicely  with  the  shoulder.  The  body  is  compact, 
fairly  well  covered  with  flesh,  has  well-sprung,  deep  ribs,  and 
is  usually  low  set.  The  chest,  back,  loin,  and  hindquarter  are 
usually  well  developed,  though  the  flank  and  twist  are  usually 
somewhat  higher  than  in  the  beef  breeds.  The  cows  are  fair 
to  good  milkers,  giving  rich  milk,  and  always  provide  an  abun- 
dance to  bring  forward  a  good  calf.  The  steers  fatten  some- 
what slower  than  the  be,ef  breeds,  but  produce  meat  fine  in 


186  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

texture  and  of  good  quality.  The  breed  cannot  be  surpassed 
as  good  feeders,  but  they  are  usually  slower  in  growth  than 
the  beef  breeds,  and  this  alone  can  account  for  the  fact  that 
they  have  never  become  popular  throughout  the  country. 
In  New  England,  in  parts  of  the  south,  and  in  a  few  other 
States  the  Devon  has  proved  profitable,  especially  on  lands 
where  the  grazing  was  rather  scant  or  of  poor  quality.  They 
are  prepotent ;  good  calves  are  produced  when  good  bulls  are 
mated  with  common  cows,  and  such  calves  usually  make  fair 
milkers. 

BRAHMAN  OR  "INDIAN"  CATTLE 

Under  the  names  of  "  Brahman,"  "  Indian,"  or  "  Zebu  "  cattle 
are  classified  a  number  of  different  strains  of  cattle  of  the  species 
Bos  indicus.  Some  of  these  strains  vary  so  in  type,  colour, 
size  and  habitat  that  they  are  classified  as  separate  breeds. 
The  most  important  breeds  of  these  cattle  are  the  Krishna 
Valley  and  Hissar.  These  cattle  are  classed  as  dual-purpose 
animals,  as  many  of  the  females  give  a  good  quantity  of 
milk.  They  are  used  quite  generally  in  India  as  milch  cows, 
and  are  more  satisfactory  than  any  other  breed  of  cattle 
under  the  severe  -conditions  of  drought,  heat,  insect  enemies, 
etc. 

As  these  cattle  have  been  raised  for  more  than  three  thou- 
sand years  in  a  hot  climate,  they  are  only  suitable  for  warm 
country.  Although  they  are  of  a  different  species  from  our 
common  breeds  of  cattle,  they  cross  readily  with  them.  The 
females  of  this  breed  carry  their  calves  somewhat  longer  than 
other  cattle,  the  period  of  gestation  being  about  three  hundred 
days. 

The  oil  secreted  by  the  sebaceous  glands  of  the  skin  is  of  a 
peculiar  odour  and  gives  the  skin  a  soft,  oily  feeling.  This 
peculiarity,  combined  with  the  scant  covering  of  hair  and  the 
extremely  tough  hide,  affords  these  animals  considerable  pro- 
tection from  ticks,  mosquitoes,  etc.  Cattle  ticks  do  not  .bother 
the  purebred  cattle  at  all,  and  few  of  the  half-breeds  become 
infested  to  any  appreciable  extent. 

These  cattle  stand  the  heat  well,  and  have  great  endurance, 
moving  readily  in  a  fast  walk  or  trot.  They  make  the  best 


UNITED   STATES  187 

of  work  steers  if  handled  constantly  by  one  driver,  but  they 
have  a  nervous  disposition,  and  give  considerable  trouble  where 
the  drivers  are  frequently  changed.  They  are  more  nervous 
than  any  of  our  breeds  of  cattle.  When  raised  in  small  herds 
and  handled  constantly  they  are  quite  docile,  but  if  handled 
under  range  conditions  they  become  very  wild,  and  stampede 
or  fight  readily.  The  quality  of  the  beef  from  these  animals 
or  from  grade  Brahmans  is  slightly  inferior  to  that  of  either 
the  beef  breeds  or  the  dual-purpose  cattle,  but  they  dress  out 
a  high  percentage  of  meat. 

In  size  the  bulls  range  from  1500  to  1800  pounds,  and  many 
of  them  attain  a  height  of  6  ft.,  while  the  cows  usually  weigh 
from  1100  to  1400  pounds.  The  various  strains  of  these  cattle 
have  different  colours,  although  each  strain  has  a  fixed  colour. 
The  colours  are  pure  white  or  a  creamy  white,  silvery  grey,  red, 
and  dark  brown  approaching  black.  The  silver-grey,  with 
dark  fawn  on  shoulders  and  neck,  and  the  creamy  white,  are 
the  most  popular  colours.  Many  of  the  animals  have  brindle 
stripes  on  the  body. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  breed  are  the  large  hump  on 
the  withers,  the  large  loose  folds  of  skin  forming  the  dewlap 
and  the  navel,  and  the  long,  drooping,  pendulous  ears.  The 
head  is  also  characteristic  of  this  breed,  as  it  is  long,  with  a 
forehead  which  recedes  from  the  eyes  to  the  horns,  while  the 
bones  forming  the  brow  are  prominent.  The  head  tapers 
gradually  from  the  eyes  to  the  nostrils,  the  horns  are  dark, 
short,  straight,  heavy  at  the  base,  and  point  upward  and 
backward.  The  ears  are  very  long,  drooping,  and  are  thin 
and  oily,  frequently  being  almost  devoid  of  hair.  The  eye  is 
mild  and  sleepy,  but  changes  quickly  when  the  animal  is 
aroused.  The  neck  is  of  medium  length  and  has  heavy  folds 
of  skin  forming  an  over-developed  dewlap  with  f ulness  at  the 
throttle.  The  body  is  deep  but  rather  narrow,  the  hips  are 
long,  sloping,  and  narrow,  and  the  rump  often  droops  toward 
the  tail.  The  legs  are  long,  tapering,  and  show  a  strong  bone 
free  from  coarseness.  A  very  heavy  sheath  is  developed,  and 
in  old  bulls  often  hangs  9  in.  or  more  below  the  belly.  The 
hump  is  large  in  the  males,  attaining  a  height  of  12  to  16  inches, 
but  is  not  so  well  developed  in  the  females.  The  half-bred 


188 


THE   WOELD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


males  may  have  a  moderately  developed  hump,  but  the  half- 
bred  females  have  none.  Animals  which  contain  as  little  as 
one-sixteenth  Brahman  blood  usually  show  some  Brahman 
characteristics,  especially  in  the  shape  of  the  head  and  the 
loose  folds  of  skin  forming  dewlap  and  navel. 


THE  BAILIFF'S  HOUSE  AT  LORD  ROTHSCHILD'S,  THING,  ENGLAND, 
WITH  A  GROUP  OF  RED  POLLS 


CANADA 

CANADIAN  farmers  are  making  strenuous  efforts  to  augment 
their  meat  supplies,  the  number  of  cattle  in  1917  being  about 
8,000,000,  against  6,600,000  in  1916 — an  increase  of  20  per 
cent.  Sheep  also  increased  from  2,022,941  in  1916  to  2,369,358 
in  1917.  The  Government  is  assisting  the  farmers  in  every 
way  to  increase  their  live-stock. 

The  Hon.  Martin  BurreJl  (Minister  of  Agriculture),  in  a 
.statement  issued  recently,  outlines  a  co-operative  plan  reached 
between  the  Department  and  the  Canadian  railways.  The  aim 
of  the  scheme  is  to  prevent  depletion  of  Canadian  breeding  and 
feeding  stock,  insure  the  feeding  of  live-stock  in  Canada,  and  to 
secure  the  return  of  feeding  and  breed  ing -stock  to  the  farms. 
It  comprises  : — 

A  redistribution  policy,  which  will  provide  for  the  move- 
ment of  stock  from  areas  where  feed  is  light  to  areas  where  feed 
is  plentiful. 

Free  freight  policy  in  connection  with  the  transportation  of 
breeding  cattle  and  breeding  sheep. 

Fifty  per  cent  rebate  of  the  freight  rate  on  car-load  ship- 
ments of  feeding  cattle  from  Winnipeg  to  country  points  in 
the  eastern  provinces. 

Free  shipments  of  car-loads  of  breeding  sheep  and  lamb^ 
from  Toronto^  and  Montreal  to  the  West.  Just  imagine  a\ 
proposal  such  as  this  on  the  State-owned  railways  of 
Australia,  where  stud  stock  are  more  heavily  freighted  than 
fat  stock  when  being  conveyed.  The  "  democratic  "  popula- 
tion of  the  big  cities  would  at  once  raise  a  cry  that  the 
farmers  were  being  favoured,  instead  of  having  brains  to 
understand  that  the  more  the  producer  is  assisted,  the  better 
it  must  be  for  the  consumer. 

The  Government  of  New  Brunswick  (Canada),  through  its 
Department  of  Agriculture,  is  giving  publicity  to  a  proposal 

189 


190  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

formulated  under  recent  legislation  by  which  it  is  hoped  the 
pastoralists  of  the  Province  will  be  encouraged  to  devote  more 
attention  to  sheep  than  has  been  done  in  the  past.  Briefly,  the 
Government's  proposal  is  this  :  through  an  arrangement  made 
with  the  chartered  banks,  assistance  will  be  given  where  it  is 
needed  to  all  farmers  to  buy  sheep.  The  Department  of  Agri- 
culture will  not  only  arrange  to  buy  sheep  for  the  farmers,  but 
will  also  buy  from  the  farmers  any  good  breeding  stock  that 
may  be  available.  If  a  farmer  needs  credit,  he  may  consult  a 
local  banker,  and  from  him  obtain  the  necessary  forms.  If 
sheep  are  not  to  be  had  in  any  given  locality,  a  farmer  there 
resident  will  be  given  an  opportunity  to  purchase  through  the 
banks  and  the  Agricultural  Department  in  another  part  of  the 
Province. 

The  Canadian  Minister  of  Agriculture,  in  a  pamphlet  dealing 
with  beef -raising,  says  :  "  Canada  recognises  that  to  succeed 
in  the  production  of  beef  the  requirements  of  the  purchaser 
must  be  complied  with.  The  standard  of  the  beef  market  has 
changed  greatly  in  recent  years.  Not  many  years  ago  the  best 
market  demanded  large,  heavy,  thick  bullocks  weighing  1800 
to  2000  lb.,  but  the  demand  has  changed,  and  cattle  of  that 
description  are  no  longer  in  demand.  The  bullock  that  com- 
mands the  highest  price  is  a  compact,  well-finished  animal 
weighing  not  more  than  1500  lb.  on  foot,  and  if  he  weighs  only 
1200  lb.,  he  will  command  the  highest  market  price,  provided 
he  has  the  form,  quality  and  finish.  Even  the  thousand-pound 
'  baby  beef  '  is  looked  for  by  the  man  with  the  money  on  this 
side  of  the  Atlantic,  but  such  cattle  are  not  shipped  abroad. 
This  change  is  greatly  to  the  advantage  of  the  producer,  as, 
other  things  being  equal,  the  younger  the  animal  goes  to  market 
the  less  is  the  cost  of  food  and  the  greater  the  profit  to  the  pro- 
ducer. 

QUALITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE 

"The  British  market  demands  cattle  of  moderate  weights, 
good  quality,  and  carrying  sufficient  fat  in  connection  with  the 
lean  meat  to  secure  a  high  degree  of  excellence  without  waste. 
To  secure  delicate  flavour  and  tenderness  a  certain  proportion 
of  fat  is  necessary,  and  this  should  be  incorporated  with  the 


CANADA  193 

flesh  or  lean  meat  rather  than  appear  only  as  a  covering  to  the 
muscles.  The  great  secret  in  producing  a  carcase  of  beef  is  to 
treat  an  animal  in  such  a  way  that  the  fat  grows  with  it  during 
the  entire  period  of  its  lifetime.  It  is  unfortunately  the  too 
common  practice  of  Canadian  beef-raisers  to  produce  all  the 
fat  that  an  animal  carries  in  the  course  of  a  few  months.  Much 
of  the  fat  put  on  it  this  way  is  deposited  on  the  outside  of  the 
carcase  ;  it  is  largely  wasted,  as  it  is  useful  for  little  else  than 
tallow.  The  carcase  that  dresses  out  showing  specks  and 
streaks  of  fat  throughout  the  lean  tissue  commands  the  highest 


SHORTHORN  Cows  AT  EDMONTON  EXHIBITION 
/ 

price.  Such  beef  is  regarded  as  much  of  a  delicacy  as  the  finest 
turkey  or  lamb.  The  only  way  to  be  sure  of  prime  quality  is  to 
maintain  the  animal  in  good  condition  by  a  system  of  liberal 
feeding  from  birth  to  maturity.  Then  the  finishing  period  is 
comparatively  short,  and  the  carcase  produces  the  highly 
desirable  marbled  beef. 

"  It  will  be  gathered  that  the  requirements  of  both  the  feeder 
and  the  butcher  must  be  considered  in  the  selection  or  breed- 
ing of  the  most  profitable  steer.  The  feeder  must  have  in  his 
animal  good  bone,  roomy  paunch  and  a  deep  broad  chest, 
while  to  the  butcher's  steer  these  parts  have  no  particular 
value,  because  it  is  in  these  that  much  waste  occurs.  Giving 


194  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

the  requirements  of  both  feeder  and  butcher  due  consideration, 
a  standard  of  perfection  has  been  built  up,  in  which  each  part 
of  the  animal  is  afforded  a  numerical  value  according  to  its 
importance.  The  following  score-card  agreed  upon  by  many 
of  the  foremost  demonstrators  and  instructors  in  animal  hus- 
bandry will  be  of  value  to  students  who  desire  to  become  pro- 
ficient in  the  judging  of  beef  cattle  :— 

SCORE-CARD  FOR  BEEF  STEER 

General  appearance,  40. 

Weight,  according  to  age 10 

Form,  straight  topline  and  underline  ;    deep,  broad, 

low  set,  stylish 10 

Quality,  firm  handling,  hair  fine,  pliable  skin,  dense 

bone,  evenly  fleshed   10 

Condition,  deep  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially 

in  the  regions  of  valuable  cats     10 

Head  and  neck,  7. 

Muzzle,  broad,  mouth  large,  jaw  wide,  nostrils  large  1 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face,  short,  expression  quiet    1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture    1 

Horns,  fine  texture,  oval,  medium  size   1 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  clean   1 

Forequarters,  8. 

Shoulder  vein,  full 2 

Shoulders,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth  2 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide    1 

Dewlap,  skin  not  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs,  straight,  short ;  arm  full,  shank  fine,  smooth  .  2 

Body,  32. 

Chest,  full,  deep,  wide,  girth  large,  crops  full    4 

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed     8 

Back,  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even   10 

Loin,  thick,  broad 8 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline     2 


CANADA  195 

Hindquarters,  13. 

Hips,  smoothly  covered,  distance  apart  in  proportion 

with  other  parts 2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  even  ;  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy  2 

Pin  bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 1 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide      2 

Twist,  deep,  plumb 2 

Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs,  straight,  short ;    shank  fine,  smooth      2 

Total  100 


IMPORTED  SHORTHORN  BULL,  GAINFORD  MARQUIS 

MAKING  BABY  BEEF  IN  ALBERTA 

Although  considerable  numbers  of  three  and  even  four-year- 
old  grass-fed  steers  still  come  from  the  ranges  of  Alberta,  the 
rapidly  increasing  production  of  grain  and  cultivated  fodders 
is  tending  to  bring'  about  the  marketing  of  cattle  at  a  much 
earlier  age  than  was  usual  under  the  old  conditions.  For  some 
years  past  sales  of  two-year-old  fat  steers,  and,  unfortunately, 
also  heifers,  have  been  increasing  in  frequency,  but  baby  beef 
has  until  now  been  unknown  on  the  Alberta  market.  The 
following  brief  statement  of  an  experiment  in  the  fattening 


196  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

of  last  year's  calves  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  supply 
farm  at  Strathmore  should,  therefore,  be  of  interest. 

Recently,  forty-four  steer  calves,  mostly  of  Hereford  and 
Shorthorn  breeding,  which  had  been  running  with  their  dams 
from  birth,  were  weaned  and  placed  in  feeding  pens  holding 
from  eight  to  fifteen  head,  in  the  big  barn  at  Strathmore.  A 
few  were  March  calves,  but  the  great  majority  were  from  six 
to  eight  months  old.  Some  were  of  excellent  beef  type  and 
quality,  but,  as  beyond  taking  the  best  of  those  which  happened 
to  be  on  hand,  they  were  not  specially  selected,  a  number  more 
or  less  lacking  from  the  feeder's  standpoint.  Calves  quite  as 
good,  or  even  better,  are  readily  procurable  in  Alberta  every 
fall.  They  averaged  in  weight  on  23rd  November  slightly 
over  486  Ibs.,  being  scarcely  as  good  in  flesh  as  they  would  have 
been  had  the  weather  in  October  and  November  been  more 
favourable  than  it  was  last  year.  Circumstances  also  prevented 
the  carrying  out  of  a  very  valuable  feature  in  the  production 
of  baby  beef,  namely,  the  teaching  of  the  calves  to  eat  chop 
when  still  with  their  dams,  thus  holding  the  milk  flesh  and 
forestalling  the  check  at  weaning,  unavoidable  otherwise. 
Throughout  the  feeding  period  the  calves  had  all  the  fodder 
they  would  eat  up  clean.  At  the  beginning,  a  little  restriction 
was  put  on  the  quantity  of  grain  given,  2  Ibs.  per  head  per  day 
being  the  amount  started  with.  By  the  end  of  the  first  month 
this  quantity  had  been  more  than  doubled,  between  6  and 
7  Ibs.  per  head  per  day  being  the  grain  ration  from  the  begin- 
ning of  full  feed  until  the  calves  were  sold.  The  grain  mixture 
used  at  the  start  was  two  parts  of  oats,  one  part  of  barley,  and 
one  part  of  bran.  About  the  1st  of  February  the  barley  was 
increased  to  half  the  ration,  and  the  same  proportion  of  bran 
continued.  A  small  quantity  of  frosted  flax,  costing  a  half- 
penny a  pound,  was  used  after  the  1st  of  January,  a  total  of 
60  bushels  being  fed  from  then  until  the  end  of  April.  All  the 
grain  required  was  valued  at  the  market  prices  prevailing  from 
the  same  at  the  end  of  October — oats  at  1/11,  barley  2/10  J  per 
bushel,  and  bran  £4/14/8  per  ton.  With  the  grinding,  the  grain 
figured  to  approximately  fd.  per  Ib.  Green  oat  sheaves  fur- 
nished the  bulk  of  the  fodder,  about  2  Ibs.  of  oat  sheaves  to 
1  Ib.  of  hay  being  the  proportion.  The  oat  sheaves  were  valued 


CANADA  199 

at  £1/8/10  per  ton  in  the  fall,  and  the  hay  £2/13/6  per  ton  for 
alfalfa  and  £1/8/10  per  ton  for  the  prairie  hay.  The  quantities 
used  of  each  made  the  cost  of  the  hay  approximately  £2/1/2 
per  ton.  The  barn  was  well  lighted  and  ventilated,  and  water 
and  salt  were  available  at  all  times. 

The  price  realised  was  4d.  per  lb.,  with  a  cut  of  Jd.  per  Ib. 
on  the  fifteen  light  calves,  and  5  per  cent  shrinkage  on  the 
whole,  as  they  were  weighed  out  of  the  barn.  This  figured  out 
as  follows  :— 

COST. 
44  calves,  total  weight  21,404  Ibs.     £264     4  11 

54,068  Ibs.  oat  sheaves    38  18     9 

43,680  Ibs.  hay 44  18     9 

33,859  Ibs.  chop  104  10  0 

6903  Ibs.  bran  16  6  8 


£468  19  1 
RETURNS. 

29  calves,  24,285  Ibs.  at  4d £424  14  9 

15  calves,  10,595  Ibs.  at  3fd 163  10  0 


£588     4     9 
Less    5    per    cent    shrinkage    on 

34,880  Ibs 29     8     3 


£558  16     6 
Deduct  cost  as  above    468  19     1 


Net  profit £89  17     5 

Cost  per  lb.  of  gain,  3|d. 

The  calves  were  purchased  and  were  weighed  out  on  the  6th 
of  May,  having  been  164  days  on  feed.  Forty -four  head 
weighed  a  total  of  34,880  Ibs.,  an  average  of  over  702  Ibs.  The 
gain  made  by  each  calf  averaged  about  305  Ibs.  for  the  period. 
A  lot  of  eight  Herefords  made  the  largest  gains  during  the 
feeding.  On  6th  May  this  lot,  averaging  just  under  twelve 
months  of  age,  weighed  950  Ibs.  each.  Another  lot  of  fifteen, 
averaging  in  age  under  eleven  months,  weighed  798  Ibs.  each  ; 
a  third  lot  of  six  head  of  the  same  age,  786  Ibs.  ;  and  a  pen  of 
fifteen  of  the  youngest  calves  706  Ibs. 

This  out-turn  shows  a  net  profit  of  nearly  £2/1/2  per  head. 
Considering  feed  prices  this  year,  this  may  be  considered  a 
very  fair  return.  Under  ordinary  conditions,  with  grain  worth 
about  3/1  per  cwt.  instead  of  6/2,  with  hay  at  least  8/2|  per 


200 


THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 


POINTS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE.     SIDE  VIEW 


1.  Muzzle. 

2.  Mouth. 

3.  Nostril. 

7.  Eye. 

8.  Ear. 

9.  Poll. 

10.  Horn. 

11.  Neck. 

12.  Throat. 

14.  Top  of  chest,  or 

neck. 
16.  Top  of  shoulder 


17.  Shoulder.  30. 

19.  Point  of  shoulder. 

19.  Arm.  31. 

20.  Shank. 

21.  Brisket.  32. 

22.  Topline.  33. 

23.  Crops.  35. 

25.  Ribs  or  barrel.  36. 

26.  Foreflank.  38. 

27.  Back  or  chine.  40. 

28.  Loin. 

29.  Hind  flank. 


Underline,  or  bottom 

line. 
Hip,    point    of    hip, 

hook  bone. 
Rump. 
Tailhead.]] 
Buttocks. 
Thigh. 
Hock. 
Navel. 


POINTS  OF  BEEF  CATTLE.     FRONT  AND  REAR  VIEWS 


4.  Lips. 

5.  Face. 

6.  Forehead. 

15.  Neck  vein,  or  shoul- 
der vein. 


18.  Point  of  shoulder. 

21.  Brisket. 

24.  Girth. 

34.  Pin  bones. 

35.  Buttocks. 


37.  Twist. 
39.  Purse. 


CANADA  201 

ton  cheaper,  and  with  the  price  of  the  finished  product  as  high 
as  that  realised — for  these  calves  sold  at  a  moderate  price, 
considering  their  quality  and  finish — there  would  have  been  a 
net  profit  of  £3/9/11  per  head.  Careful  observation  of  these 
calves  during  the  winter  confirmed  the  following  practical 
conclusions,  about  which  there  is  perhaps  nothing  very  new  : 
That  feeding  calves  for  baby  beef  pays  even  under  prevailing 
high  prices  for  feeds  and  moderate  prices  for  beef.  That  the 
best  gains  are  made  by  calves  about  eight  months  old  at  the 
beginning  of  the  feeding  period.  That  it  pays  to  select  the 
calves  carefully,  taking  only  those  that  carry  a  fair  amount  of 
natural  fleshing  and  that  have  never  had  a  set-back.  That 
beef  type  and  natural  fleshing  are  the  controlling  factors  in 
determining  the  length  of  time  and  quantity  of  feed  required 
to  fit  a  calf  for  the  block  ;  calves  of  dairy  type  and  calves  of 
beef  type  lacking  somewhat  in  fleshing  at  the  start  will  not 
make  gain  comparable  with  that  made  by  deep-fleshed,  low- 
set,  thick,  blocky  calves  that  have  never  had  their  growth 
checked — calves  of  the  thin-fleshed  order  incline  to  belly-fat, 
and  do  not  cover  deeply  with  flesh  on  the  back  and  loin.  The 
last  conclusion  is  that  quietness  in  the  food  lot,  gentleness  in 
handling  the  calves,  and  careful  attention  to  feeding  regularly 
have  nearly  as  much  to  do  with  the  final  results  as  has  the 
feed. 


MEXICO 

THE  Kepublic  of  Mexico  has  an  area  of  772,652  square  miles, 
and  is  roughly  800  miles  from  east  to  west  at  its  widest  point, 
and  2000  miles  from  north  to  south,  thus  being  equal  to  New 
South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South  Australia,  or,  say,  a  quarter 
of  federated  Australia. 

Mexico  has  about  6,000,000  cattle  and  4,000,000  sheep,  and 
with  its  great  advantages  in  railway  communications  with  its 
great  northern  neighbour,  the  United  States,  and  its  excellent 
shipping  facilities  on  the  Atlantic  side,  should,  with  an  improve- 
ment in  its  quality  of  stock,  soon  become  an  important  factor 
in  the  export  of  frozen  meat. 

There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  confusion  in  the  minds  of 
many  between  Mexico  and  New  Mexico.  Mexico  (or,  as  it  is 
generally  called,  Old  Mexico),  after  the  termination  of  the  war 
with  the  United  States  of  America  in  February,  1848,  ceded  to 
that  Republic  as  war  indemnity  all  lands  north  and  west  of 
the  Rio  Grande  River  ;  included  in  this  was  the  territory  called 
New  Mexico. 

Mexico  as  a  country  has  been  endowed  by  Nature  with  an 
over-abundant  supply  of  natural  resources,  rich  in  minerals, 
silver  in  almost  every  mountain,  copper  and  lead  are  plentiful, 
gold  also  being  found  in  fairly  large  proportions.  The  northern 
States  are  phenomenally  rich  in  immense  coal  beds,  and  in  the 
States  of  Durango  and  Nuevo  Leon  are  found  almost  solid 
mountains  of  iron.  Turning  to  the  other  sources  of  its  wealth, 
we  find  large  tracts  of  splendid  agricultural  and  grazing  lands. 
The  formation  of  the  country  is  peculiar.  It  rises  in  three 
distinct  tablelands  from  the  coast ;  first  are  the  hot  lands 
(tierra  caliente)  near  the  coast,  where  all  tropical  growth  is 
abundant  in  fruits  and  forests  ;  then  as  the  land  rises  from 
2000  to  5000  ft.  above  sea-level  comes  what  is  called  the  tem- 

202 


MEXICO  203 

perate  zone  (tierra  templada).  Here  it  is  eternal  spring.  Then 
as  the  land  gets  higher  up  to  the  Sierra  Madre  comes  the  cold 
belt  (tierra  fria),  cold  only  in  comparison  with  the  other 
warmer  parts,  as  snow  is  seldom  seen  except  on  the  high 
mountain  peaks,  but  where  frosts  in  winter  prevent  the  growth 
of  the  more  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  two  latter 
zones  are  the  great  stock-raising  portions  of  the  Republic, 
healthy  alike  for  man  and  beast. 

The  system  of  running  stock  in  Mexico  is  very  much  after 
the  old  style  that  was  in  vogue  in  Australia  fifty  years  ago. 
Sheep  and  goats  are  shepherded  in  flocks  of  from  1200  to  2000, 
the  shepherd  (pastor)  has  no  dog  to  help  him,  but  breaks  in  his 
flock  to  turn  at  certain  cries  ;  at  night  he  brings  his  flock  to  the 
camping  ground  (majada),  and  so  well  trained  are  they  that 
wherever  they  see  the  shepherd's  fire  they  coil  down  and  re- 
main till  morning,  unless  disturbed  in  the  night  by  wild  animals, 
when  it  is  the  duty  of  the  shepherd  to  get  round  them  and  bring 
them  back  to  their  camping  ground,  the  coyote  (wild  dog)  being 
most  troublesome.  The  shepherd  has  no  tent  or  hut,  merely 
a  piece  of  oilcloth  to  sleep  on  or  to  keep  his  provisions  dry  ; 
hence  the  shifting  of  camp  is  an  easy  matter,  and  a  flock  never 
remains  on  one  camp  more  than  a  few  nights — a  decided  ad- 
vantage. Over  every  four  shepherds  there  is  a  "  vaquero  " 
(overseer),  whose  duty  it  is  to  count  sheep,  carry  water  and 
rations  to  the  shepherds,  and  look  for  any  stray  sheep.  Over 
every  four  "  vasieros  "  there  is  a  "  mayordomo  "  (head  man) 
who  has  the  general  supervision  over  all,  and  issues  rations,  etc. 

Lambing  is  quite  a  laborious  undertaking.  First,  all  ewes  in 
lamb  are  carefully  drafted  out  and  run  in  small  flocks  not  ex- 
ceeding 1000  ;  each  day's  lot  of  lambs  are  kept  apart  in  small 
"  atajos  "  (flocks)  until  the  lambs  are  well  mothered,  when 
several  of  these  "  atajos  "  are  joined  ;  the  lambed  flocks  are 
never  larger  than  300  until  the  lambs  are  marked.  All  this 
necessitates  a  number  of  extra  hands,  but  as  labour  is  very- 
cheap,  from  18/-  to  20 /-  a  month,  it  pays  to  do  it,  and  usually 
good  percentages  are  raised. 

Shearing  is  done  in  temporary  sheds  of  boughs,  with  mother 
earth  as  a  floor,  swept  more  or  less  carefully  (generally  less) 
for  the  occasion.  One  of  the  shearers  being  appointed  captain, 


204  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

the  rest  bow  implicitly  to  all  his  commands,  and  it  is  to  him 
the  owner  of  the  sheep  brings  all  complaints,  such  as  improper 
shearing,  etc.  The  shearers'  tallies  are  kept  by  each  man 
receiving  a  check  as  he  releases  his  shorn  sheep.  The  owner 
pays  a  lump  sum  on  the  grand  total  as  counted  out  by  him  to 
v  the  captain,  who  arranges  with  the  men  their  individual 

amount.  The  usual  price  for  shearing  is  10 /-  a  hundred,  and 
the  shearers  find  themselves.  On  very  large  ranches  it  is  less, 
even  as  low  as  8/-.  Wool  is  packed  into  large  sacks  by  the 
simple  process  of  tramping  it  in,  fleece,  pieces  and  bellies  all 
in  one  mass,  these  sacks  averaging  about  300  Ibs.  Shearing 
twice  a  year  is  universal,  and  it  is  claimed  by  this  method  fully 
1 J  Ibs.  more  per  sheep  is  obtained.  Buyers  usually  come  round 
at  shearing  and  purchase  delivered  at  nearest  railway  station. 
Scab,  the  sheepman's  greatest  curse,  is  still  prevalent  in 
Mexico  ;  wherever  the  owners  of  sheep  are  Mexicans,  they 
either  do  not  realise  that  it  can  be  cured  or  are  too  indolent  to 
stamp  it  out  by  united  effort ;  where  sheep  are  owned  by 
Australians,  English,  or  Americans,  the  flocks  are  usually  free 
from  this  parasite. 

Goats  are  largely  raised,  as  they  are  most  prolific,  and  a 
ready  sale  for  their  carcases  is  always  to  be  had  at  from  4/-  to 
5/-  each,  whilst  their  hides  are  shipped  in  immense  quantities 
to  America  for  shoemaking,  and  realise  locally  about  2/6  each. 

By  far  the  pleasantest  branch  of  the  stock  business  is  in 
breeding  cattle,  and  this,  after  goats,  is  the  most  lucrative. 
Formerly  they  were  run  in  a  haphazard  style  on  free  range, 
and  all  owners  together,  but  now  as  land  is  being  bought  up 
and  fenced,  the  small  men  with  no  land  are  being  squeezed 
out,  and  gradually  the  cattle  industry  is  getting  into  the  hands 
of  the  wealthier  classes.  The  system  of  working  the  cattle  is 
a  happy  combination  of  the  best  methods  of  all  countries  ; 
properties  are  bought,  fenced  by  barbed  wire,  and  subdivided  ; 
stockyards,  tanks,  and  wells  put  down,  and  the  more  improved 
strains  of  Hereford,  Durham,  and  Polled  Angus  are  being 
introduced.  The  markets  for  fat  stock  are  the  principal 
cities  of  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  the  United  States  of  America. 
It  is  a  very  healthy  place  for  cattle.  I  have  never  seen  or^heard 
of  a  case  of  pleuro  or  foot-and-mouth  disease,  and  the  calvings 


MEXICO  205 

are  usually  of  a  high  percentage,  averaging  over  70  per  cent. 
Horses  do  very  well,  but  there  is  little  sale  for  them  apart 
from  those  required  for  the  Mexican  cavalry.  Mule-breeding 
is,  however,  a  most  lucrative  business,  and  splendid  animals 
are  obtained  by  using  American  jacks  (donkeys)  of  from  15 
to  16  hands  put  to  native  mares.  The  demand  is  keen  for 
mules,  unbroken,  three  years  old. 

As  to  the  price  of  land,  it  is  very  varied,  there  being,  as  in 
all  countries,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent.  Land  that  will  carry 
a  bullock  to  10  acres  can  be  bought,  fenced  and  improved,  at 
from  6/-  to  7/-  an  acre,  according  to  its  location  to  railways 
or  large  cities.  Unimproved  land  of  about  the  same  carrying 
capabilities,  but  further  back,  can  be  bought  at  from  2/-  and 
upwards,  while  some  parts  sell  as  low  as  6d.  an  acre  in  large 
tracts  of  poorer  quality.  Irrigable  lands  are  much  higher, 
running  from  £6  to  £10  an  acre. 

The  star  of  Mexico,  as  a  meat  exporter,  is  waxing,  and  it 
promises  to  shine  still  more  brightly,  as  among  the  countries 
of  the  world  few  possess  such  a  combination  of  advantages 
for  successful  stock-raising  and  cheap  meat  production.  About 
three -fourths  of  the  whole  area  is  considered  suitable  only  for 
grazing  and  agriculture,  and  the  bulk  of  it  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  grazing.  American  ranchers,  who  have  been  crowded  out 
of  their  own  country  by  the  encroachment  of  settlers  and  the 
handicap  of  the  now  almost  prohibitive  land  values  in  the 
United  States,  have  realised  the  great  field  awaiting  them  in 
Mexico,  the  richness,  the  vast  extent,  and  the  low  cost  of  the 
splendid  pastures,  and  so  it  has  come  to  pass  that  enterprising 
men,  with  money  and  experience,  have  been  migrating  from 
their  own  country  to  where  they  can  obtain  land  at  a  fifth  of 
the  price  per  acre  that  similar  land  would  command  in  Texas. 

Although  the  quality  of  Mexican  live-stock  is  at  present  in- 
ferior to  that  produced  by  the  United  States  and  Canada,  rapid 
progress  is  being  made,  and  there  is  an  increasing  percentage 
of  cattle  suitable  for  export  as  refrigerated  meat,  while  for  the 
tinned-meat  trade  there  is  an  ample  supply.  When  it  is  borne 
in  mind  that  Mexico  is  equal  in  area  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  that  the  greater 
part  of  it  can  be  most  profitably  utilised  by  the  production  of 


206  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

live-stock,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  there  are  marked  possi- 
bilities of  a  big  trade.  The  rainfall  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
territory  is  sufficient  to  ensure  the  growth  of  nutritious  grasses, 
and  the  quality  of  fat  produced  by  these  grasses  compares 
favourably  with  the  production  on  the  prairies  of  Canada,  the 
United  States,  and  Argentina. 

The  Mexican  National  Packing  Company,  Limited,  is  about 
the  most  favoured  meat  company  in  the  world.  Mexico  was 
noted  as  the  possessor  of  the  most  faulty  and  out-of-date 
system  of  dealing  with  meat  that  existed  in  any  country  of 
equal  importance,  and  in  order  to  place  it  on  a  more  sanitary 
footing,  and  to  enable  the  people  to  be  provided  with  wholesome 
meat,  the  Mexican  Government  granted  the  packing  company 
v  very  extensive  and  valuable  concessions.  The  people  of 
Mexico  can  now  purchase  clean  refrigerated  meat,  and  they 
can  purchase  it  at  a  lower  price  than  they  formerly  paid  for  a 
poorer  quality  of  meat  handled  in  an  insanitary  manner. 

Taking  everything  into  consideration,  the  improving  quality 
of  the  cattle,  the  favourable  climatic  conditions,  and  the  short 
average  rail  haul  to  the  packing  houses,  it  is  tolerably  certain 
that  before  long  Mexico  will  be  counted  as  one  of  the  world's 
big  meat  suppliers.  It  only  awaits  a  more  settled  government, 
which  no  doubt  will  come  after  the  war,  when  the  German 
influence  is  removed,  to  make  this  one  of  the  most  important 
and  the  closest  big  beef  supply  to  the  British  Empire  and  the 
United  States. 

I  shall  never  forget  the  trip  I  made  some  years  ago  from 
Vera  Cruz  to  the  City  of  Mexico.  The  railway  most  of  the  way 
rises  five  feet  in  every  hundred,  and  the  scenery  everywhere  is 
magnificent.  At  Esperanza,  near  the  top  of  the  range,  we,  as 
usual,  broke  our  journey  for  the  night,  when  we  were  ban- 
queted by  the  native  population.  We  passed  en  route  the 
magnificent  mountain  of  Orizaba,  and  from  then  on  travelled 
over  a  vast  grassy  plateau  to  the  capital.  We  were  conveying 
big  consignments  of  Mexican  dollars  to  the  coast  for  shipment, 
per  Royal  Mail  steamers,  to  China.  They  were  eventful  and 
exciting  journeys  indeed. 


VENEZUELA 

"fnis  Republic  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Brazil,  on  the  north 
by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  east  by  the  Atlantic,  British  Guiana, 
and  Brazil,  and  west  by  Colombia  ;  it  is  700  miles  north  and 
south,  and  650  miles  west  and  east.  It  has  a  population  of 
2,600,000. 

The  area  of  Venezuela  is  variously  given  between  394,000 
and  600,000  square  miles,  but  the  larger  figure  includes  terri- 
tory whose  possession  is  not  definitely  settled,  or  which  has 
only  been  approximately  surveyed. 

The  great  llanos  or  plains  are  a  marked  physical  feature  of 
Venezuela.  At  one  time  they  were  the  home  of  huge  herds 
of  cattle  and  horses.  They  are  covered  with  rich  natural  grass, 
with  some  wooded  areas,  and  the  general  elevation  above  sea- 
level  is  about  400  ft.  Due  to  the  flat  and  uniform  surface,  the 
llanos  are  inundated  in  the  rainy  season  from  the  waters  of 
the  Orinoco  to  the  extent  of  thousands  of  square  miles,  or 
connected  with  a  network  of  connecting  channels. 

It  is  a  magnificent  cattle-rearing  country,  and  at  the  present 
time  possesses  about  2,000,000  head,  mostly  small  and  wiry. 
It  is  a  country  that  should  easily  run  20,000,000.  It  has 
already  exported  frozen  beef,  and  promises  to  increase  its 
shipments. 

The  plains  are  thickly  studded  with  low  trees,  and  the 
Orinoco,  the  great  water  highway  of  Venezuela,  is  fringed  in 
its  lower  course  with  magnificent  evergreen  forests.  Vene- 
zuela is  the  home  of  the  cow  tree,  which  yields  large  quantities 
of  nutritious,  thick  milky  juice.  Countless  herds  of  cattle 
once  were  supported  on  the  grassy  llanos,  but  there  has  been 
a  great  decrease  in  the  numbers  through  the  murrain  and 
other  causes.  The  llanos  or  pampas  occupy  a  fourth  of  the 
country  lying  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  northern  moun- 

207 


208  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

tains,  with  undulating  plains  of  long  grass  broken  by  numerous 
clumps  or  belts  of  low-sized  trees.  It  is  almost  unnecessary 
to  say  that  the  lower  lying  portion  of  Venezuela  consists  of 
unhealthy  swamps  with  luxuriant  vegetation,  accompanied  by 
tropical  fevers.  The  llanos  have  the  rainy  season  in  the 
summer  months. 

In  the  province  of  Apure  the  pastures  are  abundant  all  the 
year,  a  great  number  of  horses,  mules  and  asses  feeding  on  the 
plains.  The  most  elevated  part,  in  the  province  of  Trujillo, 
has  declivities  with  fine,  well- wooded  valleys,  and  between 
them  several  plains  descending  in  gentle  slopes,  covered  with 
fine  pasture.  Sheep  are  only  numerous  in  the  mountains  and 
hilly  tracts,  cattle,  horses,  mules  and  asses  being  run  on  the 
plains  or  llanos,  hence  their  name  of  cattle -plains.  The  greatest 
hea-fe  is  experienced  on  the  cattle -plains  ;  on  that  undulating 
country  the  thermometer  ranges  between  83  deg.  and  95  deg., 
and  the  mean  annual  heat,  83  deg.,  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
Equator  at  the  sea-level.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  Rio  Apure 
the  heat  is  intolerable  during  the  dry  season,  as  the  north- 
easterly wind  passes  over  the  strongly  heated  surface  of  the 
tableland  before  it  arrives  at  the  low  plains  of  the  Apure,  and 
thus  the  air  feels  as  if  it  came  from  an  oven,  the  same  as  on  a 
"  brickfielder  "  day  in  parts  of  Australia.  The  heated  sand, 
which  is  suspended  in  the  air  and  carried  forward  by  whirl- 
winds, renders  it  still  more  disagreeable.  The  temperature  of 
this  part  is  between  86  deg.  and  98  deg.,  the  mean  annual  heat 
being  91  deg.,  although  it  is  much  less  in  those  parts  which  are 
covered  with  forests.  There  the  mean  temperature  is  only  about 
77  deg.,  and  the  thermometer  ranges  between  73  deg.  and  82 
deg.  In  the  dry  season  the  heat  is  greatest  from  January  to 
March,  but  in  the  wet,  from  July  to  December,  it  is 
frequently  accompanied  by  heavy  thunderstorms,  partially 
clearing  the  air.  At  this  time  of  the  year  rains  are  generally 
abundant  and  continual.  By  an  estimate  it  has  been  found 
that,  on  an  average,  it  rains  three  hours  every  day,  generally 
towards  evening  ;  about  midsummer  it  sometimes  does  not 
rain  for  a  whole  month.  This  season  is  called  the  Little 
Summer  of  St.  John.  In  the  extensive  forests  of  the  southern 
district  the  annual  amount  of  rain  is  between  90  and  100 


VENEZUELA  209 

inches.  The  rain  which  descends  in  this  tract  in  one  day 
frequently  exceeds  what  falls  in  a  whole  week  in  the  southern 
countries  of  Europe  during  the  most  rainy  period  of  the  year. 
On  the  lower  grassy  plains  the  annual  rainfall  varies  between 
70  and  80  inches.  On  the  higher  region  of  the  Andes  it  rains 
all  the  year  round,  especially  after  sunrise.  On  the  paramos  or 
higher  ground  (more  than  10,000  ft.  above  sea-level)  it  snows 
and  hails  continuously,  and  the  air  is  always  charged  with  a 
thick  fog,  which  disappears  at  midnight  but  returns  at  sunrise. 

Between  the  Rio  Apure  and  the  Rio  Meta,  both  affluents  of 
the  Orinoco,  are  the  llanos  of  Apure,  containing  the  lowest  por- 
tion of  the  cattle-plains.  The  lowest  tract  is  only  224  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  though  more  than  500  miles  distant  from 
that  part  of  the  ocean  to  which  the  waters  descend.  This  plain 
is  so  level  that  the  current  of  the  Apure  and  Meta  is  impercep- 
tible, and  the  least  rise  in  the  Orinoco  causes  their  waters  to 
flow  back.  No  rock,  no  stones,  not  even  a  pebble  is  seen  on 
these  plains.  The  soil  consists  of  a  mixture  of  sand  and  chalk. 
It  is  covered  with  very  nourishing  grass,  and  large  numbers  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  mules  always  find  pasture.  The  only  in- 
equalities of  the  surface  are  sandhills,  which  rise  a  few  yards 
above  the  common  level,  and  slightly  elevated  grounds 
called  banks.  These  banks  are  hardly  perceptible,  but  are 
of  great  value,  as  they  are  not  subject  to  inundation,  and 
consequently  afford  pasturage  for  the  cattle  when  the  lower 
parts  of  the  plain  are  covered  with  water.  In  the  dry  season 
this  plain  is  one  immense  pasture-ground,  until  it  is  again 
flooded  from  the  Apure  and  Meta,  when  the  tract  on  both 
sides  of  the  lower  Apure  resembles  the  Delta  of  Egypt.  The 
whole  plain  becomes  an  immense  lake,  in  which  the  banks 
appear  like  islands.  There  are  tracts  then  more  than  100  miles 
in  length,  20  miles  wide,  in  which  the  water  is  from  10  to  12  ft. 
deep,  capable  of  floating  large  barges. 

The  most  uneven  portion  of  the  cattle-plains  lies  west  of  the 
River  Orinoco.  This  country  is  covered  with  low  hills,  re- 
sembling the  waves  of  the  ocean  when  agitated  by  a  gale,  being 
overgrown  with  coarse  grass.  The  level  grassy  plains  are  few, 
and  not  of  great  extent.  On  the  southern  edge  of  this  uneven 
part  of  the  plain  are  several  isolated  hills,  which  are  surrounded 


210  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

by  extensive  plains  covered  with  fine  grass  ;  these  plains  may 
be  considered  as  the  commencement  of  the  immense  savannahs 
which  extend  southward. 

The  plains  of  Venezuela  extend  over  about  26,000  leagues,  or 
312,000  square  miles.  This  tract,  though  one  immense  plain, 
presents  a  great  variety  in  elevation,  climatic,  and  productive 
powers.  Some  tracts  are  hardly  elevated  above  the  sea,  whilst 
others  rise  to  nearly  1300  ft.  Some  are  arid  deserts,  while  the 
vegetation  of  others  is  extremely  vigorous  nearly  all  through 
the  year.  The  trees  on  these  plains  stand  singly  or  form  groves 
of  small  extent. 

The  Venezuelans  are  great  meat  eaters,  literally  devouring 
their  own  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  cattle.  The  consumption 
of  meat  is  immense  in  the  country,  being  almost  on  a  level 
with  Australia.  The  town  of  Caracas,  with  a  population 
of  one-tenth  that  of  Paris,  consumes  more  than  one-half 
the  quantity  of  beef  annually  used  in  the  capital  of  France. 
The  iguana  is  eaten  and  is  considered  a  great  dainty.  Twenty- 
five  years  ago  Venezuela  had  9,000,000  cattle,  6,000,000  sheep 
and  goats,  and  nearly  2,000,000  swine.  That  peculiar  animal, 
the  sloth,  comes  from  Venezuela,  and  so  does  the  ant-eater. 

There  is  at  present  one  refrigerating  plant  in  Venezuela,  viz. 
the  Venezuela  Meat  and  Product  Syndicate,  Ltd.,  of  London. 
It  is  situated  at  Puerto  Cabello. 

I  have  not  been  to  Venezuela  since  1884,  so  have  had  to  rely 
on  books  of  reference  for  part  of  the  above. 


BRITISH  GUIANA 

BRITISH  GUIANA  occupies  .an.  area,  equal  in  extent  to  Great 
Britain,  in  the  north-east  of  South  America.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  south  and  the  south- 
west by  Brazil,  on  the  east  by  Dutch  Guiana,  and  on  the  north- 
west by  Venezuela.  It  has  a  seaboard  of  about  270  miles 
trending  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and  a  maximum  depth 
of  about  500  miles.  The  colony  may  be  divided  broadly  into 
three  belts.  The  northern  one  consists  of  a  low-lying  flat  and 
swampy  belt  of  marine  alluvium,  known  as  the  coastal  region. 
This  rises  gradually  from  the  seaboard,  and  extends  inland  for 
a  distance  varying  from  10  to  40  miles.  It  is  succeeded  by  a 
broader  and  slightly  elevated  tract  of  country  composed  of 
sandy  and  clayey,  practically  sedentary,  soils.  This  belt  is 
chiefly  undulating  land,  and  is  traversed  in  places  by  tracts  of 
sand-dunes  rising  from  50  to  180  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  more 
elevated  portion  lie's  to  the  southward  of  the  above-mentioned 
regions.  It  rises  gradually  to  the  south-west,  between  the 
river  valleys,  which  are  in  many  parts  swampy,  and  contains 
three  principal  mountain  ranges,  several  irregularly  distributed 
smaller  ranges,  and  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts  many 
isolated  hills  and  mountains.  The  eastern  portion  is  almost 
entirely  forest  clad,  but  on  the  central  south  and  south-western 
side  there  is  an  extensive  area  of  flat  grass-clad  savannah  land 
elevated  from  300  ft.  upwards  above  sea-level. 

The  Parliament  of  British  Guiana  recently  passed  a  vote  of 
about  £12,000  to  be  used  in  making  a  cattle  track  from  the 
savannahs,  in  the  hinterland,  or  interior  of  the  colony,  to  the 
coast  line.  The  distance  is  something  like  120  miles,  and  much 
of  it  is  through  dense  bush. 

A  Mr.  Ogilvie,  who  is  a  rancher  in  the  hinterland,  is  enthu- 
siastic as  to  the  possibilities  of  cattle-raising  on  the  savannahs 

211 


212  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

there,  and  reckons  that,  given  facilities  for  transporting  cattle 
to  the  coast,  the  colony,  ere  long,  could  rely  on  shipping  very 
many  head.  He  states  that  the  savannahs  are  capable 
of  supporting  large  herds  of  cattle.  There  are  other  warm 
supporters  of  the  opening  up  of  the  hinterland,  prominent 
stock-owners  who  have  strong  views  as  to  the  great  possibili- 
ties in  this  direction.  At  present  the  only  way  of  disposing  of 
stock  is  by  driving  the  cattle  down  to  Manaos  on  the  Amazon, 
and  taking  what  one  can  get  in  the  market  there. 

"Georgetown,  the  capital,  when  I  last  visited  it,  was  an  ideal 
tropical  town.  It  is  situated  on  the  Demerara  River,  a  stream 
with  a  very  rapid  current. 


ECUADOR 

THE  area  of  the  country  is  116,000  square  miles.    Estimated 
population,  1J  millions. 

Concerted  attempts  are  being  made  by  influential  land- 
owners to  raise  the  stock-breeding  and  cattle -raising  industry 
to  a  position  of  importance,  and  to  enter  into  the  meat  export 
trade.  To  this  end  Agricultural  Expositions  are  now  held 
annually  at  Quito  under  the  auspices  of  a  number  of  large  plan- 
tation owners,  with  the  object  of  fostering  the  agricultural 
industries  generally.  Some  of  the  high  valleys  and  tablelands 
of  Ecuador  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  raising  of  stock, 
and  a  good  quality  of  hides  and  beef  is  yearly  being  produced 
in  the  Republic  in  increasing  quantities. 


213 


COLOMBIA 

THE  Republic  of  Colombia,  440,000  square  miles  in.  extent 
and  with  a  population  of  5,000,000,  occupies  an  advantageous 
geographical  and  commercial  position  ;  its  coast  is  divided 
by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  facing  both  upon  the  Atlantic 
(Caribbean)  and  Pacific  Oceans,  with  about  1000  miles  of  coast- 
line to  each  ocean.  It  is  generally  predicted  that,  as  the  Carib- 
bean becomes  more  of  a  highway,  due  to  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  the  commercial  importance  of  Colombia  will 
increase. 

Two-fifths  of  the  area  of  the  country  are  taken  up  by  very 
broken  mountainous  territory,  the  Andes  and  its  outliers, 
where  means  of  transport  are  difficult. 

The  pastoral  industries  are  of  great  importance  in  Colombia, 
and  might  be  very  much  extended. 

The  cattle  industry  is  probably  Colombia's  most  important 
agricultural  pursuit  to-day,  and  the  Republic  offers  a  promis- 
ing source  of  supply  for  the  future,  as  its  cheap  lands  and  cheap 
labour  are  prominent  factors  which  are  bound  to  stimulate  the 
industry.  Until  very  recently  the  country  exported  annually 
large  numbers  of  cattle  to  Cuba  and  Panama,  and  this  foreign 
trade,  together  with  an  increasing  local  consumption,  so  re- 
duced the  existing  stock  that  all  exports  of  cattle  were  stopped, 
and  large  numbers  were  imported  from  Venezuela  in  order 
that  the  country's  own  needs  might  be  met. 

All  the  northern  coastal  region  is  eminently  suited  for  cattle- 
raising,  more  so  than  any  other  part  of  the  country  ;  the  low 
lands  are  covered  with  grass  all  the  year  round,  and  the  higher 
lands  are  also  green  for  most  of  the  year,  with  the  exception 
of  January,  February,  and  March,  which  are  the  driest  months 
of  the  season.  The  pastures  are  of  Para  or  Guinea  grasses, 
and  the  lands  used  for  grazing  are  said  to  last  for  many  years 

214 


COLOMBIA  215 

with  an  occasional  cleaning,  and  a  burning  and  a  rest  during 
the  rainy  season. 

As  to  the  methods  practised  in  the  industry  at  the  present 
time,  it  may  be  said  that  practically  no  care  is  given  to  the 
animals,  one  man  taking  care  of  a  very  large  herd  ;  cows  drop 
their  calves  in  the  open  ;  salt  is  given  to  the  animals  infre- 
quently, not  more  than  once  a  month,  and  diseases  prevail 
among  them  to  some  extent. 

The  cattle  now  produced  are  not  large,  averaging  only  700 
or  800  Ibs.  live  weight,  but  the  breed  could  be  much  improved 
by  imported  blood.  It  takes  five  or  six  years  for  an  animal  to 
reach  maturity,  the  percentage  of  calves  that  live  is  high,  and 
if  the  dry  season  is  not  too  long  continued  there  is  plenty  of 
water  to  maintain  them  properly.  Good  grazing  lands  can  be 
obtained  from  4/-  to  £5  per  acre,  the  price  depending  on  the 
size  of  the  tract  bought,  and  its  nearness  to  the  coast  and  a 
navigable  river. 

The  Republic  is  developing  its  meat  export  trade.  Contracts 
have  been  made  for  the  supply  of  at  least  40,000  head  from  that 
country  during  the  current  year.  Agents  from  the  United 
States  are  much  in  evidence  at  the  present  time.  One  packing 
house  at  least  is  said  to  be  considering  the  feasibility  of  erecting 
a  canning  plant,  possibly  at  Barranquilla,  which  forms  a  con- 
venient port  for  such  a  purpose,  and  the  Government  has 
offered  a  subsidy  of  £10,000  to  the  first  packing  house  estab- 
lished either  on  the  Pacific  or  Atlantic  side,  the  packing  house 
to  have  a  capacity  of  50,000  head  of  cattle  per  year.  There  are 
about  2,400,000  cattle  in  the  country.  According  to  the  latest 
estimate,  Colombia  should  be  able  to  export  at  least  80,000 
head  of  cattle  during  the  year. 

The  few  small  consignments  of  beef  that  have  come  to  the 
English  market  from  the  South  American  Republic  of  Colombia 
have,  of  course,  been  a  stray  supply  attracted  by  the  un- 
failing magnet  of  high  prices.  It  would  seem,  however,  that 
there  are  other  calls  on  this  supply  than  the  distant  European 
market,  as  for  some  time  the  supply  department  of  the  Panama 
Canal  has  been  bringing  cattle  from  Colombia  to  aid  in  meeting 
the  demand  for  fresh  beef  in  the  commissary  stores  in  the  Canal 
Zone.  More  than  1000  cattle  a  month  have  been  slaughtered 


210 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


at  Cristobal,  Canal  Zone,  and  this  will  extend,  as  the  meat  is 
said  to  be  cheaper  than  that  brought  in  cold  storage  from  New 
York,  from  which  port  the  supply  department  was  receiving 
about  100,000  Ibs.  a  month.  Freight  shortage  has  made  this 
supply  difficult.  Meanwhile  land  has  been  cleared  in  the  Canal 
Zone  for  pasturing  imported  cattle  not  in  fit  condition  to  be 
slaughtered  for  beef  ;  it  comprises  some  10,000  acres  near  the 
Atlantic  end  of  the  isthmus,  1500  acres  at  Empire,  3000  acres 
at  Culebra,  and  2300  acres  at  Corozal,  where  a  Government 
farm  is  maintained. 


LORD  ROTHSCHILD'S  HAMPSHIRE  DOWN  Six  MONTHS  RAMS, 
TRING,  ENGLAND 


HONDURAS 

HONDURAS  has  an  average  of  46,250  square  miles,  and  is 
situated  north  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  On  the  north  of  it 
is  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  south  Nicaragua,  and  on  the  west 
Guatemala  and  San  Salvador.  The  fifteenth  degree  of  north 
latitude  runs  through  it.  There  are  about  half  a  million  head 
of  cattle  in  the  country. 

The  Government  is  endeavouring  to  encourage  stock-raising 
by  disseminating  information  regarding  improved  methods. 
Stockmen  from  the  United  States  are  carefully  inquiring  about 
and  investigating  the  cattle  resources  of  the  country.  Ship- 
'ments  of  li ve  cattle  are  commencing  from  the  port  of  Ceiba  on 
the  North  Coast,  and  a  refrigerating  plant  is  about  to  be  in- 
stalled near  Puerto  Cortes.  Improved  stock  are  being  intro- 
duced, and  an  export  of  50,000  head  annually  is  looked  for  in 
the  near  future.  Most  of  the  cattle  at  the  present  time  are 
found  in  the  departments  of  Choluteca  and  Olancho,  on  the 
southern  and  south-eastern  side  of  the  country.  The  entire 
country  is  comprised  of  mountains  and  valleys.  Honduras, 
being  within  the  area  of  the  north-east  trade  winds,  has  an 
equable  and  agreeable  climate,  particularly  in  the  higher  lands 
of  the  interior.  The  temperature  ranges  from  a  minimum  of 
42  deg.  on  the  highlands  to  97  deg.  on  the  coast.  Streams  of 
clear  pure  water  abound  almost  everywhere  during  the  rainy 
season.  During  the  dry  season,  the  open  ranges  being  much 
overstocked,  the  cattle  get  into  a  very  poor  condition,  but  with 
good  management  this  can  be  easily  remedied. 

In  nearly  every  part  of  Honduras  there  is  land  suited  to  the 
raising  of  live-stock  in  a  limited  way.  There  are  two  depart- 
ments, however — Olancho  and  Choluteca — where  three-fourths 
of  the  cattle  of  the  country  are  raised . 

Ticks  are  prevalent,  and  the  introduction  of  dips  and  dipping 

217 


218 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


is  badly  needed.  On.  the  coast  lands  and  in  the  interior  well- 
watered  valleys,  or  where  irrigation  is  practicable,  permanent 
fenced  pastures  are  the  rule.  These  are  planted  with  Para,  and 
Guinea  grass,  which  make  plentiful  and  succulent  forage. 

The  average  rainfall  of  the  whole  country  annually  is  about 
48  inches. 

The  cattle  of  the  country  are  descended  from  importations 


HALF-BLOOD  HONDURAS  SHORTHORN  BULL,  SHOWING  MARKED  IMPROVEMENT 
OVER  NATIVE  TYPE 

from  Spain  soon  after  the  conquest.  These  naturally  have 
much  degenerated,  the  native  stock  being  small  ;  though 
fleshed  and  slow  to  reach  maturity,  they  generally  kill  at  about 
400  Ibs.  weight. 

So  far  little  has  been  done  to  improve  them,  but  the  advent 
of  men  from  the  United  States,  as  I  said  before,  is  making  itself 
felt.  Cuba,  which  possesses  itself  no  less  than  4,000,000  head 
of  cattle,  used  to  get  a  lot  of  cattle  from  Honduras,  but  that 
island  is  now  fully  stocked  up.  The  worst  disease  in  Honduras 


HONDURAS 


219 


is  the  tick ;  tuberculosis  and  foot-and-mouth  disease  are 
unknown.  Honduras  has,  in  addition  to  an  outlet  to  the 
Atlantic,  an  outlet  to  the  Pacific.  The  best  way  to  improve 
the  stock  would  be  to  import  good  sires,  immune  from  tick 
fever,  from  the  southern  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
construct  dips  everywhere.  This  country  as  a  meat  producer 
should  have  a  future. 


LORD  ROTHSCHILD'S  HAMPSHIRE  DOWN  EWES,  THING,  ENGLAND 


BOLIVIA 

BOLIVIA  is  the  third  largest  Republic  in  South  America  ;  it 
has  no  seaboard,  and  its  goods  are  shipped  to  Pacific  ports  in 
Chile  and  Peru.  It  has  an  area  of  708,295  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  two  and  a  half  million.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
west  by  the  Andes,  and  on  the  east  by  Brazil.  It  is  mountainous 
country,  but  generally  becomes  flatter  towards  Brazil.  The 
hills  and  particularly  the  valleys  grow  very  rich  grasses  on  the 
east  side,  but  on  the  west  the  soil  suffers  from  low  rainfall  ; 
however,  wherever  irrigation  is  introduced,  it  grows  excellent 
feed.  In  the  future  Bolivia  should  be  a  big  cattle-raising 
country  ;  diseases  are  said  to  be  almost  extinct,  and  the 
climate  is  good. 

The   Republics    of    Guatemala   and   Nicaragua  in  Central 
America  have  also  excellent  pastures  for  cattle-raising. 


220 


PERU 

THE  Republic  occupies  a  long  stretch  of  territory  upon  the 
surf -beat  en  Pacific  Coast  of  South  America,  extending  from 
near  the  Equator  to  latitude  nearly  20  deg.  south,  and  thence 
across  the  vast  mountain  range  of  the  Andes  to  the  Amazon 
Valley.  The  sea  frontage  is  1400  miles  in  length,  and  the  area 
of  the  country  is  variously  'estimated  between  440,000  and 
680,000  square  miles,  portions  being  in  dispute  with  its  neigh- 
bours Chile,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia.  There  have  also  been 
boundary  questions  with  Bolivia  and  Brazil  upon  its  eastern 
side.  It  has  a  population  of  4,500,000. 

Cattle  and  sheep  are  plentiful,  but  a  lot  will  have  to  be  done 
in  the  way  of  improving  their  quality  before  this  country  can 
be  taken  into  account.  There  is  not  much  prospect  for  cattle- 
rearing  at  present,  it  is  more  of  a  mining  country,  but  there 
are  vast  areas  of  rich  grazing  lands  upon  which  the  famous 
Alpaca  flocks  are  run,  and  the  land  is  easily  irrigated. 

Apart  from  the  more  spectacular  mining  industry,  it  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  plateau  and  the  limestone  flanks  of 
the  high  inland  Andes  of  Peru  are  grazed  by  thousands  of 
llamas  as  well  as  by  scattered  flocks  of  native  sheep,  for  which 
the  short  turf  that  grows  from  11,000  ft.  up  to  the  snow  line  is 
admirably  adapted.  An  interesting  and  successful  experiment 
has  been  carried  out  by  Messrs.  Duncan,  Fox  &  Co.,  who  ten 
years  ago  imported  6000  well-bred  sheep  from  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  to  form  the  nucleus  of  an  Andean  sheep -breeding 
industry  on  modern  lines.  The  flocks  have  now  increased  to 
over  40,000  under  the  care  of  Scotch  shepherds  brought  from 
the  Orkneys,  the  whole  undertaking  reflecting  great  credit  on 
Anglo-Saxon  American  pastoral  enterprise.  We  have  the 
analogy  of  .Patagonia  to  prove  that  wherever  the  guanaco  runs 
— to  which  the  llama  and  vicuna  are  first  cousins — it  is  a  sign 
of  good  "  sheep  country,"  and  the  logical  inference  is  that 

221 


222 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


2000  miles  of  the  Andean  Cordillera,  in  Ecuador,  Peru,  and 
Bolivia,  offer  for  sheep -breeding  a  region  greater  in  area ,  even 
if'  somewhat  inferior  in  grazing  qualities,  than  that  of  all 
Patagonia. 

OTHER  LATIN -AMERICAN  COUNTRIES 

Other  cattle-raising  countries  of  Latin- Am  erica  are  Costa 
Rica,  with  347,485  head  of  cattle  (in  1915)  ;  Guatemala,  with 
655,386  head,  equal  to  13-57  head  per  square  mile  ;  Nicaragua, 
.with  some  500,000  head  of  cattle  (in  1915)  ;  Salvador,  with 
284,000  head  (estimated  in  1915),  and  an  excellent  future 
were  the  industry  to  be  well  organized  and  the  export  trade 
supported  by  adequate  shipping. 


GROUP  OP  2-YEAR-OLD  HEIFERS  AND  COWS  AT  THE  ROYAL  FARM, 
WINDSOR,  ENGLAND 


RHODESIA 

THIS  vast  territory,  larger  than  France,  Germany  and  Holland, 
is  450,000  square  miles  in  extent,  mostly  at  an  altitude  of  from 
3000  to  5000  ft.  It  contains  90,000,000  acres  of  good  cattle 
land  with  excellent  natural  pasturage,  and  stock  thrive  to  an 
exceptional  degree  in  almost  every  part.  No  country  in  the 
world  has  better  grasses  for  ensilage -making  than  Rhodesia. 
Acres  and  acres  of  native  grasses  can  be  seen  in  February  and 
March  (towards  end  of  the  rainy  season)  4  or  5  ft.  high,  which 
would  give  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre  if  left  till  April  {commence- 
.ment  of  dry  season),  and  would  make  the  best  of  ensilage  ere 
it  got  too  rank  ;  with  no  cost  nor  care  of  laying  the  field  down  in 
grass  nor  topdressing  and  locking  same  up,  no  fencing  nor  re- 
grassing  at  any  time.  Though  the  general  herds  of  cattle  keep 
up  their  condition  wonderfully  through  the  dry  season  (the 
winter  months)>  though  they  seldom  see  anything  green,  just 
dry  grass  with  plenty  of  water,  yet  the  aged  cows,  the  cows 
with  young  calves,  and  all  weakly  stock,  would  benefit  by  the 
ensilage,  to  say  nothing  of  topping  off  forward  store  oxen  in 
the  time  of  year  when  there  is  keenest  demand.  With  plenty 
of  ensilage  on  hand,  the  trek  oxen  could  be  worked  much  longer 
hours.  Cattle  are  largely  on  the  increase,  and  diseases  of  all 
kinds,  which  are  naturally  prevalent  where  there  are  big  num- 
bers of  wild  animals,  are  getting  rapidly  under  control.  A 
great  point  in  favour  of  Rhodesia  is  that  at  present  it  is  not 
cursed  with  that  bane  of  many  countries,  the  professional  poli- 
tician, and  the  longer  it  can  be  thus  free,  the  more  rapid  should 
be  its  progress. 

During  the  year  1917,  13,221  head  of  slaughter  cattle  were 
sent  to  the  Union  of  South  Africa,  and  arrangements  were 
made  for  the  extension  of  this  trade  to  the  entire  territory  in 


224  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

place  of  a  portion  of  Matabeleland  only.  Progress  has  also 
been  made  in  the  preliminaries  for  the  proposed  canning 
factory,  which  it  is  hoped  will  afford  a  market  for  a  class 
of  stock  not  suitable  for  the  fresh  meat  trade.  Consignments 
of  frozen  beef  from  Rhodesia  have  been  sent  to  England,  and 
have  elicited  most  encouraging  reports  from  Smithfield. 

The  need  of  purebred  stock  to  improve  the  native  and  grade 
cattle  continues  to  be  one  of  the  most  pressing  wants,  and  re- 
quirements are  still  very  far  from  being  met  in  this  direction. 

The  namber  of  dipping  tanks  is  now  close  upon  1000,  and 
there  is  every  probability  of  many  more  being  erected  in  the 
immediate  future.  The  Compulsory  Dipping  Ordinance, 
although  its  amendment  has  been  freely  discussed  and  is  pro- 
jected, has  been  widely  adopted,  till  at  the  close  of  1917  it  was 
actually  applied  to  78  per  cent  of  the  farms  in  the  country,  and 
WPS  in  course  of  adoption  over  a  further  20  per  cent. 

As  an  instance  of  how  the  introduction  of  good  sires  to  the 
native  herds  of  a  country  improves  their  condition,  a  few  years 
ago  in  Southern  Rhodesia  it  was  almost  impossible  to  find  a 
native  bullock  weighing  over  550  Ibs.  dressed  weight,  at  five 
or  six  years  old.  Now,  however,  it  is  quite  common  to  find 
three-year-old  steers  by  a  good  bull,  out  of  native  cows,  killing 
at  700  Ibs.  Halfbreds  have  enormously  increased  in  number 
and  bulls  continue  to  arrive  by  every  steamer  from  the  home 
land.  Probably  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  which  at 
.  present  presents  such  a  good  field  for  the  increase  and  improve- 
ment of  cattle.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  at  once  to  cross  the 
native  stock  with  carefully  selected  Africander  bulls,  and  get 
size  and  hardness  into  the  herds,  then  cross  the  improved  Stock 
with  the  progeny  of  imported  purebred  stock,  and  be  careful 
in  choosing  these  sires.  A  friend  who  is  ranching  there  now 
says  :  "I  consider  there  is  no  country  in  the  world  to-day  that 
offers  such  good  prospects  for  the  ranching  companies  who  are 
prepared  to  develop  the  land  as  Rhodesia.  For  the  small  man 
who  can  take  up  3000  to  10,000  acres,  his  capital  should  be 
invested  in  stock  and  windmills.  Fencing  can  always  be 
erected  later.  .  .  .  Do  not  put  useless  native  boys  on  herding 
stock  ;  employ  the  best  boy  you  have  on  the  farm.  Teach  him 
his  duties,  and  do  not  let  him  keep  the  cattle  in  a  bunch,  as 


RHODESIA  225 

one  so  often  sees.  Do  not  kraal  at  night  if  you  can  possibly 
help  it.  I  am  afraid  that  on  a  great  many  farms  cattle  are 
driven  miles  to  water  and  good  grazing,  only  to  be  brought 
back  over  the  same  long  tramp  at  night  to  be  shut  up  until  the 
following  morning.  Remember,  cattle  do  not  stray  naturally, 
but  only  in  search  of  food.  Let  your  calves  run  with  their 
mothers.  Take  care  that  your  stock  are  not  roughly  handled  ; 
remember  that  beef  cattle  never  want  to  lose  an  ounce  of  flesh 
from  the  day  they  are  born. 

;'  Water  is  a  very  important  question  all  over  Africa,  where 
stock  suffer  a  great  deal  through  want  of  it.  If  you  have  not 
a  running  stream  all  the  year  round  on  your  farm,  erect  wind- 
mills wherever  possible.  They  will  soon  repay  the  outlay. 

"  If  you  water  your  stock  from  dams  or  pools,  fence  them  off, 
and  erect  a  pump  and  troughs,  so  that  your  stock  always  have 
clean  water  to  drink.  Remember  that  stock  should  never  have 
far  to  go  for  water  ;  it  is  wonderful  how  stock  will  pull  through 
a  bad  winter  if  they  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  water. 

"  In  a  country  like  Rhodesia,  subject  to  a  long,  dry  winter, 
the  use  of  succulent  winter  feed  for  stock  is  very  necessary  to 
keep  the  animals  in  condition  and  maintain  growth,  especially 
so  in  the  case  of  beef  steers.  Maize  silage  is  one  of  the  cheapest 
and  most  valuable  forms  of  stock  food.  Every  farmer  and 
rancher  should  always  have  a  good  supply  in  hand  in  case  of 
a  drought  or  a  bad  season.  Also  remember  that  once  the  beef 
trade  is  established,  the  most  profitable  method  of  disposing 
of  your  grain  will  be  to  send  it  to  the  market  on  four  legs." 

Before  rinderpest  decimated  the  cattle  in  1896  and  1897  in- 
numerable herds  browsed  on  the  well-grassed  lands  of  Rho- 
desia, which  also  swarmed  with  game.  These  cattle  were 
chiefly  owned  by  the  natives,  who  largely  estimated  their 
wealth  and  social  status  by  the  head  of  stock  they  possessed. 
Then  came  the  appalling  catastrophe  of  the  rinderpest  in- 
vasion, followed  by  East  Coast  fever,  and  the  land  was  left 
desolate.  The  restocking  of  the  country  was  largely  from  the 
north,  and  cattle  were  brought  from  as  far  as  German  East 
Africa.  Angoni  cattle,  which  are  a  humped  breed,  were  largely 
introduced.  Common  native  bulls  were,  of  course,  used  at 
first ;  but  as  the  white  man  began  to  pay  some  attention  to 


226-  THE  WOELD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

cattle  breeding,  Africander,  Polled  Angus,  Shorthorn,  Fries- 
land,  Devon,  Sussex,  and  Hereford  bulls  were  brought  in  with 
more  or  less  success. 

Encouraging  results  have  attended  the  efforts  of  those  in- 
terested in  sheep-raising  in  Rhodesia.  Where  the  soil  and  pas- 
ture is  suitable,  the  Merino  breed  is  being  bred  and  reared  most 
successfully.  Exhaustive  trials  have  been  conducted,  and  it  may 
now  be  confidently  asserted  that  so  long  as  high-class  sheep 
are  used,  the  future  of  the  sheep -raising  industry  is  safe.  Sheep 
are  proving  more  profitable  than  other  classes  of  stock,  on 
account  of  the  excellent  prices  which  can  be  made  for  the  wool. 

The  Liebig  ranch  is  on  the  Mazunga,  the  home  station  being 
between  thirty  and  forty  miles  from  Messina  drift  on  the 
Limpopo,  and  some  180  miles  from  Buluwayo. 

There  are  28,000  head  on  the  Liebig  ranch,  and  the  selected 
mobs  of  cows  have  the  service  of  a  fine  number  of  pure-bred 
bulls,  Polled  Angus  and  Sussex,  these  bulls  being  kept  at  their 
home  stations  to  save  them  from  walking  the  veld  with  the 
herds.  The  increase  is  given  at  70  per  cent,  which  is  regarded 
as  most  satisfactory  ;  and  as  the  grazing  capacity  is  placed 
at  twenty  acres  per  beast,  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  ranch 
is  50,000.  As  this  number  would  soon  be  reached,  it  is  obvious 
that  a  large  percentage  must  move  off  each  year. 

The  Mazunga  Ranch  pins  its  faith  to  Polled  Angus  and 
Sussex,  and  makes  quicker  use  of  the  pure  breeds,  and  more 
use  of  Colonial  cows  to  speed  up  the  grade.  The  custom  is  to 
put  an  imported  bull,  when  acclimatised,  to  sixty  cows,  while 
an  Afrikander  will  serve  thirty  ;  but  the  imported  bull  will  be 
fed  at  the  stables,  and  the  food  will  consist  of  greenstuff,  bran 
and  oil-cake  from  the  Salisbury  monkey-nut  oil  factory, 
together  with  one  of  the  "  Oxo  "  by-products. 

A  system  of  paddocking  is  in  vogue  at  Mazunga,  which  fences 
off  paddocks  of  4000  acres  to  accommodate  600  head  ;  but  the 
cost  of  wire  has  arrested  the  construction.  As  one  fenced-in 
paddock  is  eaten  down,  the  cattle  would  be  moved  on  to  the 
next,  giving  the  first  time  to  recover. 

The  purebred  stock  are  sprayed  and  not  dipped,  and  every 
evening  are  examined  for  tick  and  rubbed  with  tick  grease  if 
there  are  signs  of  the  pest. 


RHODESIA  227 

Nearly  all,  if  not  all,  disease  is  insect  borne,  and  it  is  now 
realised  that  to  preserve  the  cattle  from  inroads  of  disease,  dips 
must  be  constructed  and  used  frequently.  Undoubtedly,  the 
crossbred,  or  pure,  cattle  will  be  more  subject  to  local  maladies 
than  are  the  native  female  parent  stock.  But  in  Argentina, 
Queensland,  and  the  Southern  States  of  the  Union  this  diffi- 
culty has  been  largely  overcome  by  careful  dipping.  Most  of 
the  cattle-breeding  districts  of  Southern  Rhodesia  are  at  an 
elevation  of  from  3000  ft.  to  4000  ft.,  which  gives  them  an 
advantage  over  similar  lands  in  other  countries  situated  in  the 
same  latitude. 

Cattle  cannot  yet  be  run  in  large  mobs.  Usually,  mobs  of 
200  to  300  are  found  to  be  as  large  as  the  herdsman  can  manage, 
especially  as  the  herding  is  done  on  foot.  Horse  sickness  is 
very  prevalent  in  Rhodesia,  and  although  a  prophylactic  serum 
has  been  discovered  for  the  inoculation  of  mules,  and  is  success- 
ful, the  perfected  serum  for  horses  has  yet  to  be  produced. 

The  experienced  cattle  breeder  from  Argentina,  Australia, 
or  the  United  States  must  preserve  a  very  open  mind  if  he  is 
to  be  successful  in  Rhodesia.  All  local  methods  of  cattle 
breeding  are  not  necessarily  wrong  in  principle,  because  they 
appear  patriarchal  and  antique,  according  to  our  notions,  and 
the  new  environment  will  modify  many  preconceived  ideas. 
The  experience  of  other  lands  and  ways  of  working  is  of  in- 
estimable value,  and  slowly  many  modifications  and  changes 
of  present  methods  can  be  introduced.  Any  too  abrupt  change 
is  not  likely  to  work  for  good.  The  Kaffirs,  who  have  1o  be 
employed  as  cattle  men,  understand  their  own  ways  of  working, 
and  their  habits  do  not  lend  themselves  to  sudden  changes. 
The  pioneer  breeder  of  improved  stock  will  probably  confine 
himself  at  first  to  such  elementary  changes  in  native  methods 
as  the  separation  of  heifers  and  young  steers  from  the  parent 
stock,  weaning  them  as  late  as  possible  ;  the  age  marking  of 
each  crop  of  calves  by  ear  mark,  and  changing  this  annually  ; 
separation  and  final  culling  and  fattening  for  sale  of  the  abort- 
ing cow  or  heifer  ;  the  early  castration  of  male  calves  ;  dipping 
for  the  destruction  of  parasites  ;  letting  the  cattle  run  at  night 
where  possible,  or  in  the  event  of  this  being  impossible  owing 
to  the  shortage  of  cattle  herds,  or  owing  to  the  presence  of  too 


228  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

numerous  predatory  animals,  making  the  night  corrals  large, 
and  changing  them  frequently.  The  conservation  of  fodder  in 
hay  or  ensilage  must  be  taken  in  hand.  The  curtailing  of  the 
periods  of  bull  service  must  be  done  with  very  great  judgment, 
as  these  native  cows  are  accustomed  to  run  with  the  buU,.and 
are  not  accustomed  to  taking  service  at  prearranged  restricted 
periods.  Any  abrupt  retiring  of  the  bulls  for  more  than  a 
month  would,  for  many  years,  result  in  a  much  diminished 
crop  of  calves  at  branding  time.  At  first  breeders  must  be 
content  to  avoid  only  the  dropping  of  calves  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  rainy  season.  For  many  years  any  cow,  no  matter 
what  her  class,  which  breeds  a  calf  will  be  retained  in  the  herd 
until  the  country  be  stocked  up. 

Probably  the  most  interesting  and  most  important  develop- 
ment of  cattle  breeding  in  Southern  Rhodesia  has  been  the 
acquisition  of  large  tracts  of  land  there  by  the  Lemco  and  Oxo 
Company,  commonly  known  as  the  Liebig's  Extract  of  Meat 
Company.  As  a  firm  of  scientific  cattle  breeders,  owning 
enormous  tracts  of  landed  property  in  Argentina,  Uruguay, 
Paraguay,  and  South -West  Africa,  with  countless  herds  of  cattle 
the  company  has  vast  stores  of  successful  experience  to  draw 
upon,  and  its  presence  in  Rhodesia  is  a  valuable  asset  to  the 
country. 

"  The  question  is  frequently  asked,"  says  a  recent  writer, 
"  '  Which  is  the  best  country  in  which  a  young  man  with  a 
small  capital  can  make  a  start  at  cattle  breeding  ?  '  With  some 
experience  of  other  lands,  I  think  I  can  safely  give  a  verdict  in 
favour  of  Southern  Rhodesia.  Cheap  land  can  still  be  obtained 
to  the  south  of  the  Zambezi,  and  if  young  men  will  only  keep 
clear  of  the  towns,  where  the  cost  of  living  is  ruinously  expen- 
sive, good  use  can  be  made  of  a  small  capital.  Previous  ex- 
perience in  other  countries  is  desirable,  but  not  essential.  No 
man,  however,  should  invest  his  capital  in  land  or  stock  with- 
out at  least  two  years'  experience  in  the  country.  The  native 
languages — Matabele  and  Mashona — should  be  learned.  Under 
the  intelligent  direction  of  the  Director  of  Land  Settlement, 
Government  farms  have  been  established  to  which  the  aspiring 
'  Estanciero  '  can  go  to  learn  his  work.  I  met  some  young 
men  who  had  enlisted  in  the  Rhodesian  Police,  and  there 


RHODESIA  229 

gained  much  knowledge  of  the  country.  Particulars  of  these 
appointments  and  of  the  farms  can  be  obtained  from  the  British 
South  Africa  Company  in  London.  In  my  judgment,  the 
smallest  amount  of  capital  with  which  a  successful  start  can 
be  made  is  £1500,  and  the  expenditure  of  this  should  be  spread 
over  several  years.  Very  good  judgment  will  have  to  be  exer- 
cised if  only  this  small  amount  of  capital  is  available.  In 
Rhodesia,  as  elsewhere,  success  depends  much  more  on  the 
man  himself  than  on  any  cash  disbursement." 

An-"  old  North  Queenslander  "  writes  me  :  "  It  may  interest 
you  to  hear  of  Rhodesia  from  the  pastoral  point  of  view.  Cattle 
raising  is  quite  in  its  infancy  here  yet.  The  possibilities  are 
undoubtedly  great ;  so  possibly,  in  the  near  future,  Australians 
will  be  attracted  to  Rhodesia  if  they  wish  to  extend  their 
operations  to  other  countries.  The  company  I  represent  is  the 
Rhodesian  Cattle  and  Land  Company  Limited  (registered  in 
England).  We  have  acquired  in  Northern  Rhodesia  100,000 
acres  of  freehold  land  in  one  block  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Kafue  River,  about  100  miles  up  from  the  railway  bridge. 
This  railway  is  the  main  line  from  Cape  to  Cairo.  This 
Northern  Rhodesia  ranch  (Lochinvar)  is  only  lightly  stocked 
yet,  the  first  mob  arriving  here  in  April,  1911.  We  have 
4000  head  now,  but  the  ranch  is  capable  of  carrying  20,000 
head.  This  year's  calves  number  400,  and  we  expect  to  brand 
well  over  1000  next  year.  We  are  breeding  from  Hereford 
bulls  imported  from  England  and  native  cows,  mostly  Barotse. 

"  The  first  grade  is  a  better  result  than  I  expected,  and  I 
hope  that  in  a  very  few  years  the  herd  will  be  one  to  be  proud  of. 
The  country  is  particularly  good.  This  you  may  judge  from 
my  estimate  of  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  ranch,  20,000  head 
of  cattle  on  100,000  acres.  There  is  a  large  area  of  this  ranch 
which  is  inundated  each  year  by  the  overflow  from  the  Kafue 
River,  and  it  remains  flooded  for  two  or  three  months.  After 
the  flood  waters  have  gone,  the  grazing  on  this  area  is  wonder- 
fully good,  the  grass  remaining  very  green  until  the  following 
rainy  season.  The  grass  that  grows  on  these  flats  is  particu- 
larly sweet,  almost  as  sweet  as  sugar-cane,  and  cattle,  pigs, 
horses  and  mules  all  relish  it  thoroughly  and  keep  fat  all  the 
time  they  are  grazing  on  it.  During  the  wet  season,  when  this 


230  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

part  is  unavailable,  we  have  all  the  stock  on  the  high  sand  ridges, 
where  Guinea  grass  grows  luxuriantly  and  the  stock  do  splen- 
didly. We  have  a  fair  amount  of  both  classes  of  country  about 
equally  divided  in  this  one  block  of  land. 

"  Owing  to  the  presence  of  large  herds  of  game  it  is  impos- 
sible to  fence  in  large  areas,  the  game  being  so  destructive. 
Lions  chase  the  game  about  at  night,  and  a  herd  of  several 
hundreds  of  zebra  or  large  buck  will  charge  into  the  fences.  No 
fence  can  stop  them.  Under  the  circumstances  we  are  com- 
pelled to  herd  the  cattle  by  day  ;  at  night  they  are  yarded  into 
barbed -wire  yards.  This  necessitates  a  rather  bigger  staff  than 
that  on  an  Australian  station.  The  herdsmen  are  natives, 
three  or  four  to  each  mob  of  500  or  600  head  of  cattle.  It  would 
amuse  an  Australian  pastoralist  to  see  a  mob  of  600  cattle 
handled  by  three  men  on  foot.  From  this  you  will  see  that  the 
cattle  are  particularly  quiet. 

"  The  market  for  Northern  Rhodesia  is  the  Congo,  where  it 
is  fully  expected  very  big  developments  will  take  place  in  the 
near  future.  There  are  enormous  copper  deposits  in  that  terri- 
tory. At  present,  Congo  buyers  pay  35 /-  to  40 /-  per  100  Ibs. 
dead  weight  for  slaughter  stock,  the  buyer  paying  railage. 
The  cattle  are  taken  away  by  rail  alive,  and  the  dead  weight  is 
estimated  before  they  leave  Rhodesia.  This  price  is  likely  to 
be  maintained  (if  not  improved  upon)  for  some  years  to  come. 
The  presence  of  tsetse  fly  in  the  Congo  prevents  stock  from 
being  ,bred  there  in  a  big  way. . 

"  Liebig's  Company  has  lately  secured  a  large  area  of  land  in 
South  Rhodesia,  and  I  hear  on  very  good  authority  that  that 
company  purpose  erecting  a  big  factory  there  within  two  or 
three  years.  I  understand  that  this  company  is  particularly 
pleased  with  the  land  it  has  secured  and  with  the  appearance 
of  the  stock. 

"  My  company  has  also  a  ranch  of  150,000  acres  of  freehold 
land  in  SouthjRhodesia.  This  has  only  lately  been  purchased, 
and  not  much  has  yet  been  done  there  in  the  way  of  stocking  it. 

"  I  am  very  disappointed  that  up  to  the  present  I  have  not 
been  permitted  to  import  Hereford  bulls  from  Australia.  The 
Rhodesian  Government  have  not  yet  decided  to  permit  this, 
the  matter  being  still  under  consideration.  My  contention  is 


RHODESIA  231 

that,  as  the  climate  of  Rhodesia  is  almost  identically  the  same 
as  Queensland,  stock  from  Queensland  (or  any  part  of  Australia) 
would  require  less  acclimatising  than  stock  from  England.  I 
also  contend  that  equally  as  good  blood  could  be  introduced 
from  Australia,  and  at  a  lesser  cost.  Stock  in  Australia  are  not 
so  '  forced,'  and  are,  therefore,  more  hardy  and  more  Suitable 
for  the  veldt  in  this  country. 

"  From  an  agricultural  point  of  view,  the  possibilities  here 
are  also  good.  I  have  known  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bags  of 
mealies  to  be  the  return  per  acre  from  various  farms  on  the 
Kafue  ;  ten  bags,  however,  is  more  general — 200  Ibs.  to  the 
bag.  Many  parts  of  the  Kafue  should  grow  excellent  sugar- 
cane, the  soil  being  particularly  rich.  Thousands  of  acres 
could  be  irrigated  by  lifting  water  from  Kafue  River  15  ft.,  and 
fed  from  one  main  furrow.  Thousands  of  acres  could  be 
ploughed  without  any  expense  in  the  way  of  clearing.  Not  a 
stump,  or  a  tree,  or  a  stone  to  be  moved.  Many  parts  closely 
resemble  the  best  lands  on  the  lower  Burdekin  country  in  North 
Queensland,  where  sugar-cane  grows  so  wonderfully  well." 

Mr.  Richard  Walsh,  the  British  South  Africa  Company's 
expert  in  ranching,  gave  some  interesting  information  when 
interviewed  in  London  recently.  Mr.  Walsh  selected  the  big 
areas,  between  3  and  4  million  acres,  in  Rhodesia,  which  the 
company  is  now  devoting  to  cattle  ranching,.  The  million-acre 
ranch  known  as  Rhodesdale,  now  in  a  fairly  advanced  con- 
dition, is  partly  in  Mashonaland  and  partly  in  Matabeleland, 
and  the  railway  runs  through  it.  A  bigger  scheme,  but  one 
much  less  advanced,  is  represented  in  the  Nuenetsi  territory 
of  three  million  acres,  lying  to  the  south  of  Victoria.  There  is 
also  a  ranch  of  100,000  acres  about  60  miles  south  of  Victoria. 
Mr.  Walsh  said  :— 

"  During  the  past  two  years  we  have  got  together  35,000 
cattle,  of  which  22,000  are  on  the  Rhodesdale  ranch,  and  the 
balance  on  the  other  two.  So  far,  we  are  simply  building  up 
the  herds,  and  we  are  only  disposing  of  the  old  cattle.  Beyond 
that,  we  expect  to  put  practically  nothing  on  the  market  for 
three  years.  At  present,  we  are  going  on  the  theory  of  twenty 
acres  per  animal.  That  is  the  proportion  we  are  thinking  of 
before  starting  to  export. 


232  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


BUILDING  UP  THE  HERDS 

"  The  foundation  of  the  herds  is  native  cattle,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  2500  better  bred  colonial  cows  from  the  Cape.  At 
present  we  are  using  a  number  of  Afrikander  bulls,  in  addition 
to  some  Shorthorns,  Herefords,  Polled  Angus,  and  North 
Devons.  These  I  consider  as  the  breeds  that  will  probably  do 
best  in  Rhodesia.  I  have  every  confidence  in  the  country  as  a 
great  cattle  country.  It  is  notorious  that  the  herds  of  Loben- 
gula's  days  were  a  good  deal  better  than  the  present-day  cattle 
in  Rhodesia,  more  particularly  in  size.  They  had  been  bred 
with  some  care,  and  it  is  evident  that  Lobengula  and  his  head- 
men had  the  instinct  of  stock  breeders.  They  also  had,  from 
long  experience,  an  expert  knowledge  of  the  best  grazing 
localities. 

"  Mainly  the  rinderpest  and  other  diseases  threw  the  cattle 
back  ;  but  we  need  not  fear  that  sort  of  thing  now,  as  we  have 
a  very  efficient  veterinary  department,  and  cattle  are  rendered 
immune  by  inoculation.  From  my  experience  in  other  coun- 
tries, I  consider  Rhodesia  a  very  healthy  cattle  country.  It 
certainly  has  no  more  disease  than  any  other  country,  and  with 
our  veterinary  department  and  the  practice  of  general  dipping, 
all  these  will  be  eradicated. 

"  The  grasses  in  Rhodesia  have  better  fattening  properties 
than  in  any  other  ranching  country  I  know.  Very  little  extra 
feeding  is  necessary  in  the  dry  months — just  enough  to  help 
one  to  take  care  of  the  weak  cattle.  I  know  of  no  other  country 
in  which  cattle  carry  their  condition  as  they  do  in  Rhodesia 
through  what  may  be  regarded  as  the  '  bad  months  '  from  the 
stock-farmers'  standpoint. 

COMING  BEEF  EXPORTS 

"  Our  aim  for  the  next  few  years  is  to  produce  a  better  type 
of  beef  animal  in  much  larger  numbers  before  establishing  our 
export  trade.  While  we  are  building  up  our  herds  in  this  way, 
there  will  be  a  growing  surplus  of  cattle  not  required  for  the 
purpose.  The  great  present  want  of  Rhodesia  is  a  canning 
factory,  and  I  am  glad  to  say  there  is  every  prospect  of  one 


RHODESIA  233 

being  established  at  once.  That  will  enable  us  to  deal  with 
meat  other  than  the  big  export  which  we  are  arranging  for 
later — when  the  meat  will  be  sent  to  Europe  either  chilled  or 
frozen.  Apart  from  what  the  chartered  company  is  doing, 
several  big  ranching  companies  have  been  started,  or  are  being 
started,  in  Rhodesia.  As  their  aim  also  is  the  exportation  of 
meat,  the  country  should  take  a  big  place  in  the  meat  market 
at  an  opportune  time." 

There  are  3,961,600  acres  of  valuable  grazing  land  in  the 
Hartley  district.  In  that  6000  odd  square  miles,  the  variety  of 
soils  is  such  as  to  ensure  every  possible  requirement  for  cattle- 
raising  or  for  ranching.  Heavy  black  humus-filled  land  or  rich 
red  loams  alternate  frequently  with  stretches  of  sand  veld.  If 
there  be  those  disposed  to  despise  the  granite  soil,  let  it  be 
known  that  among  the  biggest  ranchers  there  are  men  who 
will  have  no  sort  of  a  farm  that  does  not  include  a  proportion 
of  this  sand  veld  in  its  grazing. 

There  are  eight  large  rivers  and  their  tributaries  meandering 
through  this  territory,  and  when  it  is  mentioned  that  lime  is 
prevalent  along  these  streams,  it  can  be  well  understood  that 
Hartley  cattle  have  most  of  the  conditions  favourable  for 
heavy  frame  -forming. 

Before  the  rinderpest  swept  across  Africa  and  well-nigh 
exterminated  the  game,  Hartley  was  one  of  the  most  heavily 
stocked  grazing  grounds  of  the  country.  Rhodesia  then  was 
like  a  game  reserve  in  the  extent  of  the  herds  of  bovines  it 
fostered.  The  remnants  of  the  big  buck  of  these  herds  had 
begun  to  re-establish  their  depleted  numbers  at  the  time  the 
suspicion  began  to  fall  upon  the  larger  game  as  carriers  of  the 
tsetse  fly.  Consequently,  since  a  known  "  fly  "  area  came  to 
be  defined,  and  was  thrown  open  for  promiscuous  shooting  of 
even  Royal  game,  the  kudu,  sable,  eland,  waterbuck  and  others 
of  the  antelopes,  with  the  elephant,  rhino  and  hippopotamus, 
have  been  harried  almost  to  extinction  once  more,  and  the 
parallel  shrinking  of  that  tsetse  belt  is  well  recognised.  It  is 
probable  that  that  area  is  responsible — though  it  is  a  fraction 
of  the  total  extent  of  the  district — for  a  widespread  belief  that 
Hartley  is  unhealthy  for  stock.  There  is  one  large  ranch  in 
the  midst  of  the  "  fly  "  belt ;  and  one  farmer,  at  least,  who 


234  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

claimed  an  abatement  of  the  purchase  price  of  his  farm  because 
he  learned  that  his  land  was  within  the  confines  of  the  sus- 
picious ground,  has  now  discarded  his  donkeys  and  has  taken 
pretty  extensively  to  cattle.  The  B.S.A.  Co.  have  selected  a 
ranch  of  approximately  a  million  acres  which  lies  largely  in 
Hartley,  and  it  is  being  rapidly  stocked  with  valuable  cattle  ; 
and,  furthermore,  Hartley's  live-stock  figures  stand  first  for 
Mashonaland  in  numbers,  and  only  Gwelo  in  Matabeleland 
surpasses  it  for  the  whole  of  the  Rhodesia  districts. 

The  last  stock  census  showed  33,002  cattle  in  the  district. 
This  is  at  the  rate  of  120  acres  per  head,  so  it  will  be  seen  that 
there  is  vast  room  for  extension.  Though  at  present  there  are 
more  farms  returning  statistics  than  in  any  other  district,  there 
is  much  land  still  for  sale.  Though  some  of  the  best  of  the 
pedigree  bulls  have  been  imported  that  have  come  from  Hartley 
farms,  the  great  bulk  of  herds,  so  far,  like  those  of  all  Rhodesia, 
are  not  far  removed  from  the  native  stock,  having  very  largely, 
originally,  been  purchased  or  traded  from  the  kaffir  reserves 
around.  That  source  of  origin  accounts  for  the  hardiness  in 
herds  that  earned  the  district  its  true  reputation  for  cattle 
health. 

Hartley,  with  much  of  South  Africa,  has  been  suffering 
keenly  during  the  past  few  years  from  uncertain  rainfall, 
and  a  depression  of  a  like  period  in  cattle  prices  has  struck 
it  hard  as  well. 

During  these  lean  years  the  stock  has  been  multiplying  in  a 
steady  increase,  though  their  cash  value  as  individuals  sank  at 
times  far  below  their  purchase  price.  Under  that  steady  fall 
there  has  been  little  inducement  even  to  disperse  a  herd  that 
gave  little  promise  of  interest  on  its  capital  value,  for  "  a 
pound  a  leg  "  has  been  a  very  common  bid  at  auctions.  A 
holding-on  policy  has,  therefore,  been  the  rule,  and  now  the 
reward  seems  in  sight,  and  the  larger  profits  will  now  be  the 
more  easily  secured  because  of  the  hard  experience  gained  in 
carrying  on  through  the  seasons  of  narrow  margins.  The 
almost  vanishing  prices  being  paid  for  grain,  as  against  the 
steadfast  price  of  butcher -meat  has  done  much  to  press  home 
the  desirability  of  selling  crops  on  the  hoof.  Outbreaks  of 
East  Coast  fever  occurring  urged  the  compulsory  dipping  that 


RHODESIA  235 

is  now  in  vogue,  and  that  compulsory  clause  enforced  the 
building  of  the  requisite  tanks.  Seeing  the  night  herding, 
especially  of  working  oxen,  that  other  districts  have  to  resort 
to,  impressed  the  excellence  of  the  Hartley  pasturing,  that  ren- 
ders that  expedient  unnecessary,  but  the  benefits  of  the  free 
night  grazing  are  so  well  recognised  that  wherever  possible 
fenced  paddocks  have  ousted  the  primitive  kraaling  methods. 
The  number  of  miles  of  fencing  will  immediately  be  extended 
so  soon  as  wire  is  again  reasonably  procurable. 

Southern  Rhodesia  offers  the  farmer  three  varieties  of 
climate  and  country,  says  a  recent  writer  : — 

"  (a)  The  high  grazing  veld  of  Matabeleland,  with  an  alti- 
tude of  4000  feet ;  (b)  the  higher  altitude  of  northern  and 
middle  Mashonaland,  with  a  greater  rainfall  and  favoured  con- 
ditions for  the  culture  of  mealies,  tobacco  and  oranges  ;  .and 
(c)  the  low-lying  country  skirting  the  Limpopo,  which  is  also 
suited  to  cattle.  There  are  ranches  in  Mashonaland  on  the 
granite  lands  which  are  too  poor  for  mealies,  but  the  cattle  are 
found  chiefly  on  the  Matabele  side  where  the  grass  is  shorter, 
and,  it  is  said,  sweeter.  The  Zulus,  like  most  natives,  were 
good  judges  of  cattle  country,  and  when  Moselikatze  went 
north,  he  picked  his  site  on  land  where  now  are  most  of  the 
white  cattlemen,  and  his  herds  grazed  west  to  where  the  big 
Rhodesdale  ranch  is  situated,  and  south  to  where  the  other 
big  ranch,  owned  by  Liebig's,  is  located  between  the  Limpopo 
and  the  Matoppos. 

"  Formerly,  business  men  in  Bulawayo  talked  '  gold  '  ;  now 
they  talk  '  beef  '  ;  and  in  the  clubs  most  heated  arguments 
rage  between  the  Hereford  men  and  the  Polled  Angus  followers, 
while  Shorthorn,  North  Devon,  and  Sussex  admirers  have  a 
say.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  breed  has  yet  been  proved,  and  the 
ranchmen  are  at  present  finding  out  not  what  breed  is  best 
for  the  whole  country,  but  what  breed  or  breeds  do  best  under 
the  varying  conditions  in  various  districts.  The  B.S.A.  ranch- 
men have,  for  example,  satisfied  themselves  that  Shorthorns 
do  better  on  the  southern  ranch  below  Victoria  than  they  do 
at  Rhodesdale,  while  Liebig's  are  inclined  to  think  that  the 
Polled  Angus  and  Sussex  are  the  best  choice.  They  are  trying 
out  the  breeds,  and  as  they  swap  experiences,  they  will  in  time 


236  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

select  their  fancies  and  stick  to  them  ;  but  it  seems  clear  that 
the  recognised  beef  strain  will  differ  in  one  district  from  the 
other,  which  means  that  most  breeders  of  pure-bred  bulls  may 
expect  a  market  in  Rhodesia.  Last  year  over  a  thousand  head 
of  heifers  and  bulls  were  imported,  chiefly  from  the  Union,  and 
each  year  the  big  ranches  are  on  the  lookout  for  bulls.  In 
September  last  Mr.  Fleming  (manager  of  the  Rhodesdale 
ranch)  was  in  Bulawayo  district  looking  for  150  young  bulls, 
and  he  purchased  fifty  from  one  breeder.  As  he  told  me,  he 
was  pleased  to  find  that  the  small  breeder  had  become  alive  to 
the  necessities  of  the  big  ranches,  and  had  been  concentrating 
on  the  breeding  of  pure-bred  beef  strain  with  excellent  results. 

"  In  time  the  big  ranches  will  create  their  own  bull-breeding 
herds,  but  this  will  not  be  for  another  five  years  or  so,  and  even 
then  the  smaller  ranchmen  will  be  in  the  market  for  sires. 
They  run,  on  the  average,  one  bull  to  thirty  cows,  and  as  a 
small  ranch  would  carry  7000  cows,  each  such  ranch  would 
require  230  bulls. 

"  The  Chartered  Company's  two  ranches  at  Rhodesdale  and 
Victoria  cover  together  about  70,000  head  ;  Liebig's  carries 
28,000  head  ;  and  the  ranches  run  by  De  Beers,  the  Anglo- 
French,  and  the  Central  Estates  are  coming  on.  In  addition 
to  these  there  are  numerous  small  ranches  which  carry  from 
300  head  up  to  7000  and  are  rapidly  growing.  All  these  ranches 
are  breeding  beef,  and  to  breed  beef  they  must  have  pure-bred 
bulls  of  the  beef  strain,  together  with  heifers,  and  this  demand 
creates,  as  I  have  said,  a  market  worth  studying.  It  may  be 
noted  that  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  Friesland,  Jersey, 
Ayrshire,  and  other  dairy  breeds  ;  and  it  may  also  be  men- 
tioned, to  avoid  trouble,  that  many  of  the  cattlemen  in 
Rhodesia  know  more  about  the  beef  breeds  than  most 
breeders  in  South  Africa,  and  that  they  will  not  take  inferior 
animals." 

Naturally  a  big  ranch  costs  money  in  the  creation.  The 
Chartered  Company  recently  spent  some  £20,000  on  native 
cattle,  representing  a  fraction  of  the  outlay,  and  Liebig's  have 
probably  spent  well  over  £100,000  in  live-stock.  Expert  know- 
ledge is  required  to  protect  such  large  interests,  and  the  B.S.A. 
Company  secured  the  services  of  two  experienced  cattlemen 


RHODESIA  237 

from  the  United  States,  in  the  persons  of  Mr.  R.  Walsh  and  Mr. 
H.  Fleming.  Be  it  understood  these  are  not  cowboys,  but 
gentlemen  of  education,  who  have  made  it  their  business  in  life 
to  study  cattle  and  their  management,  beef  production,  and 
the  marketing  thereof.  Mr.  Walsh  directed  a  big  ranch  in 
America,  and  Mr.  Fleming  had  twenty-one  years'  experience 
learning  the  business,  as  he  puts  it,  "all sides  up."  It  has  been 
asked  in  Rhodesia  why  South  Africans  were  not  engaged,  and 
the  answer  is  that  ranching  was  not  known  in  that  country, 
and  that  the  huge  undertaking  necessary  would  have  seemed 
beyond  the  range  of  men  accustomed  to  handle  cattle  in  small 
numbers.  The  United  States  is  the  biggest  cattle  country  in 
the  world,  and  its  ranchmen  have  "  thought  in  thousands," 
and  handled  the  conditions  which  threaten  to  overwhelm  the 
manager  who  is  not  used  to  cattle  by  tens  of  thousands.  There 
is  a  boldness  in  the  design  of  a  large  ranch  that  must  rather 
dismay  the  cautious  man,  and  Mr.  Fleming  relates  that  when 
he  went  on  the  market  once  to  buy  150  bulls  at  one  swoop  the 
eyes  of  an  old-timer  nearly  popped  out  as  he  cried  :  "  One 
hundred  and  fifty  !  My  word,  I  thought  I  was  going  strong 
when  I  bought  three  at  a  go  !  "  South  African  breeders  know 
cattle  fore  and  aft,  top  and  bottom,  but  they  did  not  have  the 
experience  of  ranchmen,  and  accordingly  the  Chartered  Com- 
pany sent  to  the  United  States  for  two  cattlemen  of  proved 
knowledge,  capacity  and  tact.  The  two  stepped  into  their 
places  quietly,  carved  out  one  million  acres  from  the  unoccu- 
pied land,  divided  this  enormous  area  into  seven  blocks,  and 
set  about  building  up  a  beef  strain,  on  the  bedrock  of  the  small 
but  hardy  native  stock  ;  and  they  have  gone  their  way  un- 
obtrusively, working  out  their  ideas  without  forcing  their 
opinions  on  others.  Liebig's  Ranch  followed  the  same  large 
lines  of  development,  but  not  the  same  policy  of  breeding. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  foregoing  that  the  possibilities  of 
Rhodesia  as  a  beef -producing  country  are  enormous,  and  fair 
supplies  of  excellent  beef  can  be  looked  for  in  the  immediate 
future.  To  the  west  there  is  another  very  excellent  fertile 
country  in  Bechuanaland,  containing  225,000  square  miles  of 
ideal  cattle  country.  However,  the  cattle  at  present  are  of  the 
native  type,  and  very  little  has  been  done  in  improvements  so 


238  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

far  ;  but  once  the  war  is  over  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  time 
that  country  will  be  exploited  and  its  herds  improved. 

The  Rhodesia  Meat  Packing  Company,  Limited,  has  been 
formed,  with  a  capital  of  £100,000,  to  acquire  a  piece  of  land 
situated  at  Odzi  Station,  Mashonaland,  with  water  rights  on 
the  Odzi  River,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  meat-canning  and 
freezing  works.  The  capacity  of  the  factory  is  to  be  approxi- 
mately 75  beasts  per  day.  It  is  the  intention  of  the  company, 
as  soon  as  the  canning  works  are  in  operation,  to  proceed  with 
arrangements  with  a  view  to  the  freezing  and  export  of  meat 
for  shipment  overseas. 

Essentially,  Rhodesia  is  a  stock  country.  The  conditions 
point  strongly  to  meat  as  the  principal  ultimate  product  to  be 
elaborated  off  the  veld.  Dairying,  too,  undoubtedly  has  a 
bright  future,  yet  primarily  beef  is  to  be  looked  to  as  Rhodesia's 
staple  export  to  the  world's  markets  ;  milk,  butter  and  cheese 
will  chiefly  meet  the  local  demand. 

Cattle-raising  requires  more  capital  and  a  longer  time  before 
profits  accrue,  but  ultimately  yields  a  higher  return.  Crop- 
growing  yields  a  more  regular  and  an  earlier  return — a  more 
vital  consideration  to  the  newcomer  and  the  man  of  limited 
means.  Ranching,  or  at  least  cattle  farming  on  extensive  lines, 
is  a  growing  feature  of  the  times  in  Rhodesia,  so  far  with  a  very 
promising  measure  of  success,  the  one  general  want  as  yet  being 
numbers.  The  indigenous  native  cattle  supply  the  foundation 
stock,  improvement  being  gradually  effected  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  bulls  of  European  breeds.  The  Government  is  en- 
deavouring to  encourage  the  systematic  improvement  of  cattle 
in  the  country,  and  steps  for  the  establishment  of  a  stud  farm 
have  been  taken,  whilst  no  inconsiderable  time  is  devoted  to 
tendering  information  and  advice  on  the  subject. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Rhodesian  methods  in  cattle  farming 
are  advancing,  the  most  noticeable  signs  being  increased  atten- 
tion to  such  matters  as  hay-making  for  winter  use,  production  of 
forage  and  of  root  crops  for  stall  feeding,  the  construction  of 
dairies  and  dipping  tanks,  better  housing,  more  attention  to 
the  care  of  calves,  and,  perhaps  above  all,  fencing.  Changes 
in  the  direction  indicated  are  conspicuous  on  some  of  the  large 
ranches  in  Lomagundi  and  the  farming  districts  of  Goromonzi, 


RHODESIA  239 

Umtali,  and  elsewhere,  where  cattle  now  run,  day  and  night  in 
camps,  undisturbed  and  free,  with  very  obvious  advantages, 
as  against  the  primitive  custom  of  herding  all  day  and  kraaling 
at  night.  The  mortality  of  cattle  from  casual  ailments  and 
accidents  is  singularly  low  throughout  the  country,  but  particu- 
larly so  where  fencing  enables  the  nightly  concentration  in 
kraals  to  be  avoided — an  effective  protection  against  the  ap- 
pearance and  spread  of  contagious  disease — and  where  the 
conditions  of  life  are  otherwise  rendered  wholesome,  natural, 
and  easy. 

Major  E.  Gordon  writes  me  from  Beira,  Portuguese  E.  Africa, 
under  date  13th  October,  1918  : — 

"  I  have  been  on  special  duty  since  February  this  year,  buy- 
ing cattle  for  the  Imperial  Government  in  Southern  Rhodesia, 
for  export  through  Beira  to  German  East  Africa  and  Portu- 
guese E.  Africa  for  the  troops  in  those  territories.  We  send 
them  away  alive,  not  frozen.  The  cattle  have  some  hundreds 
of  miles  to  march  after  disembarking  at  the  coast.  Cattle  in 
Rhodesia  are  worth  40 /-  to  45 /-  per  100  Ibs.  dead  weight,  and 
have  greatly  improved  here  the  last  few  years.  Many  breeders 
are  progressing  rapidly  on  sound  lines. 

"  Liebig's  Company  has  a  ranch  in  Southern  Rhodesia  of 
about  1J  million  acres  (freehold),  and  they  have  now  about 
32,500  head  of  cattle  on  this  ranch.  They  go  in  for  Sussex  and 
Polled  Angus  breeds. 

"  The  B.S.A.  Company  have  a  ranch,  too,  in  Southern  Rho- 
desia, and  their  herd  is  about  70,000  now.  That  company  go 
in  more  for  Herefords,  but  they  have  some  Polled  Angus  cattle 
as  well  as  Shorthorns  and  N.  Devons.  Most  of  the  famous 
breeds  from  home  do  well  in  Rhodesia.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
Rhodesia  will  one  day  be  a  recognised  big  cattle  producer." 


SOUTH  AFRICA 

THE  Union  of  South  Africa,  comprising  Natal,  Transvaal, 
Orange  State,  and  Cape  Colony,  continues  rapidly  to  grow  in 
importance  as  a  source  of  Empire  meat  supply.  The  pastoral 
condition  of  the  country  is  eminently  suitable  for  beef  produc- 
tion on  a  large  scale,  and  the  existing  herds  of  cattle,  which  in 
many  parts  are  being  rapidly  improved,  already  total  8,000,000 
head.  Everywhere  one  sees  efforts  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  beef  and  to  make  it  suitable  for  the  export  trade.  Freezing 
works  are  being  erected  and  enlarged  at  the  various  ports,  and 
railways  are  being  extended.  There  is  an  ever-increasing  de- 
mand for  stud  cattle  of  both  milk  and  beef  breeds,  and  African 
buyers  at  times  almost  equal  those  from  the  big  South  American 
Republic  in  the  prices  they  offer  the  British  breeders.  Even 
during  the  war,  continual  consignments  were  being  received. 
Under  an  arrangement  entered  into  some  years  ago  between 
the  Union  Government  of  South  Africa  and  the  Union  Castle 
Mail  Steamship  Company,  it  is  provided  that  the  shipping 
company,  shall  carry  pedigree  cattle  freight  free  for  a  stipulated 
number  of  years.  No  charge  is  made  for  freight,  but  a  charge 
is  made  for  fodder  and  attendance  of  £4/1 5/-  per  head,  and  a 
very  active  demand,  and  an  increasing  one,  is  being  made  for 
all  descriptions  of  high-class  animals.  Some  years  ago  Mr. 
Armour,  of  Chicago,  stated  that,  in  his  opinion,  South  Africa 
was  the  grandest  ranching  country  in  the  world  ;  it  only  needed 
brains,  industry  and  enterprise.  Cattle  since  1904  have  in- 
creased from  3,500,000  to,  in  1917,  8,000,000  head. 

The  generous  policy  of  Sir  Owen  Philipps  in  carrying  pedigree 
stock  from  Britain  to  South  Africa  free  of  charge  since  he  took 
over  the  Union  Castle  line  and  obtained  the  renewal  of  the 
South  African  mail  contract  is  undoubtedly  having  beneficial 
effects  throughout  the  Union.  Instead  of  being  bred  for 

240 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


241 


"  trekking  "  purposes  only,  as  in  the  past,  bullocks  are  now 
bred  for  meat,  and  there  is  great  improvement  not  only  in  the 
quality,  but  in  the  dressing  also,  of  the  frozen  article  sent  to 
the  English  markets. 

Without  doubt,  South  Africa  is  destined  to  be  a  beef-export- 


TYPICAL  KARROO  SCENE.     ANGORA  GOATS  AND  OSTRICHES,  GROOTFONTEIN, 

CAPE  COLONY 

ing  country  on  a  large  scale  before  many  years  are  over.  At 
present  the  quality  all  round  needs  standardising,  and  the 
butchering  and  dressing  requires  improving  ;  but  this  is  un- 
doubtedly being  seen  to  by  those  who  wish  to  see  the  ind  istry 
firmly  and  profitably  established  ;  they  are  details. 

The  meat  is  now  a  more  or  less  regular  feature  on  Smithfield 
market,  and  it  is  gradually  becoming  more  regular  in  quality 


242  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

as  the  producers  become  better  acquainted  with  the  market 
needs. 

A  very  fine  sample  of  South  African  beef  was  to  be  seen 
recently  in  the  Smithfield  market.  This  was  a  consignment  of 
16  beasts,  averaging  880  Ibs.  per  body.  The  quarters  made  a 
very  fine  show  ;  they  were  prize  meat  from  the  Johannesburg 
Fat-Stock  Show,  having  been  sent  by  the  South  African  Meat 
Export  Company  after  exhibition  in  Johannesburg.  The  meat 
was  from  Aberdeen- Angus  cattle,  with  a  strain  of  Devon.  Its 
condition  was  perfect,  good  butchering  being  another  quality, 
which  it  was  welcome  to  see.  The  meat  fetched  8fd.  by  the 
side,  and  attracted  a  good  number  of  visitors  from  outside  the 
market,  including  Sir  Owen  Philipps,  K.C.M.G.,  M.P.,  the  well- 
known  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  chairman,  who  has  done  so 
much  to  further  South  African  trade. 

Farmers  in  all  parts  of  South  Africa  are  awakening  to  the 
potentialities  of  the  meat  export  industry,  and  various  concerns 
are  being  formulated  to  take  up  the  business.  The  pioneer 
concern,  known  as  the  Farmers'  Co-operative  Meat  Industries 
Limited,  has  increased  its  capital  considerably  to  enter  upon  a 
larger  enterprise,  and  another  large  company,  comprising  some 
of  the  best-known  names  in  South  Africa,  has  been  formed. 

Sir  Thomas  Robinson,  the  Agent-General  for  Queensland, 
has  during  the  war  been  purchasing  on  behalf  of  the 
British  Board  of  Trade  South  African  meat  as  well 
as  Australian,  New  Zealand,  Argentine,  Brazilian,  and 
Canadian,  but  the  quantities  since  the  beginning  of  1917 
are  not  known,  neither  is  the  destination  of  the  meat. 
Over  and  above  the  purchases  on  behalf  of  the  Govern- 
ment for  Great  Britain  and  the  Allies,  there  have  been  some 
small  shipments,  sometimes  500  or  600  quarters,  direct  to 
London  by  the  Union  Castle  boats.  The  meat  has  fetched  an 
average  of  9d.  to  lid.  per  Ib.  for  hindquarters,  fores  selling  in 
the  usual  corresponding  ratio.  In  1916  the  export  of  frozen 
meat  from  South  Africa  amounted  to  17,687,121  Ibs.,  valued 
at  £354,341.  All  this  was  beef  ;  there  is  no  mutton  going  for- 
ward. Of  the  above  quantity  4,297,313  Ibs.,  valued  at  £75,399, 
went,to  the  United  Kingdom  markets  ;  the  remainder  was  for 
Government  contracts.  These  figures  show  a  great  advance 


SOUTH   AFRICA  243 

over  those  of  1915,  when  the  total  export  of  meat  from  South 
Africa  amounted  to  6,056,435  Ibs.,  valued  at  £107,362.  Eng- 
land took  5,095,000  Ibs.,  of  the  value  of  £86,000.  Complete 
figures  for  1917  are  not  available,  but  the  total  export  of  beef 
up  to  30th  June  amounted  to  91,263  quarters,  this  quantity 
including  the  Government  contracts.  The  second  half  of  the 
year  is  always  the  busiest  shipping  season.  The  South  African 
farmers  are  making  big  strides,  and  are  doing  all  they  possibly 
can  to  put  the  industry  on  a  firm  basis.  Certainly  an  industry 
which  is  already  bringing  in  over  £300,000  a  year  is  one  which 
is  bound  to  receive  encouragement.  There  is  so  much  re- 
frigerated produce  now  sent  away  from  South  Africa  that  the 
cold  storage  facilities  at  the  ports  are  quite  inadequate.  The 
stores  are  often  full  up,  owing  to  the  shortage  of  tonnage. 

Everything  points  to  the  beef  export  trade  of  South  Africa 
being  a  huge  thing  within  a  few  years.  For  the  past  two  or 
three  years  farmers  have  been  repeatedly  urged  by  the  Govern- 
ment experts  and  other  authorities  to  improve  their  cattle, 
and  to  direct  proper  attention  to  the  question  of  feeding. 
This  advice  has  not  fallen  on  deaf  ears,  for  there  is  already  a 
very  noticeable  improvement  in  both  directions.  Again, 
farmers  now  comprehend  the  wisdom  of  the  dipping  practice, 
and  losses  to-day  are  almost  negligible  as  compared  with  those 
of  a  few  years  back.  The  potentialities  of  the  Union  in  this 
direction  have  impressed  many,  and  adequate  preparations  are 
being  made  to  deal  with  the  future  herds  of  the  farmer.  Four 
huge  cold  storage  works  and  abattoirs  are  being  erected  ab 
Durban,  and  the  Government  is  extending  the  Congella  wharf 
by  about  two  miles.  Similar  works  are  being  erected  at  Port 
Elizabeth,  and  at  several  inland  centres ;  also  at  Lorenzo 
Marques  in  Portuguese  territory.  The  capacity  of  the  coastal 
works  will  be  such  as  will  enable  the  companies  to  export 
throughout  the  year,  the  idea  being  to  purchase  almost 
entirely  during  the  summer  and  autumn  months. 

The  following  description  of  a  South  African  cattle  pro- 
perty, by  the  principal  of  the  School  of  Agriculture,  Cedara, 
Natal,  will  be  of  interest  :— 

"  This  property,  comprising  some  100,000  acres  of  dry  sand 
country,  is  near  Mafeking,  and  the  herd  is  a  monument  to  the 


244  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

adaptability  of  the  Shorthorn,  and  also  of  his  prepotency  and 
impress! veness  as  a  sire.  That  other  of  the  improved  breedf 
might  have  done  equally  well  is  not  denied  ;  but  in  this  eu-se 
the  Shorthorn  was  the  improved  type  used.  It  is  proposed 
to  give  details  in  regard  to  this  successful  herd,  and  to  show 
what  is  so  apparent,  viz.  that  the  continual  use  of  highly  bred 
bulls  of  sound  constitution  and  excellent  stamp  has  ine reused 
the  value  per  head  of  the  cattle  considerably,  whilst  turning 
out  an  annual  surplus  of  animals  of  the  butcher  type  full  grown 
and  fat  at  three  to  four  years  old,  which,  when  killed,  give 
meaty  carcases  fully  calculated  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
European  market. 

"  Eleven  years  ago  a  commencement  was  made  by  Mr.  L.  S. 
Meintjes  with  a  small  Shorthorn  herd.  Three  years  afterwards, 
in  conjunction  with  the  African  Farms  Ltd.,  500  breeding 
heifers  and  cows  were  obtained,  chiefly  in  the  Cape  Province, 
and  with  the  exception  of  some  Friesland- Jersey  crosses,  a  few 
North  Devons,  and  some  nondescript  animals  from  South- 
West  Africa,  all  the  original  cattle  showed  Shorthorn  blood. 

"In  1907  the  company  started  importing  bulls, When  two 
Lincoln  Reds  were  obtained,  their  breeding  showing  some 
Coates  Shorthorn  blood.  Since  then  only  good,  well-bred 
Coates  Shorthorns  of  the  "  Scotch  "  beef  type  have  been  used. 
and  all  these  bulls  trace  back  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  herd 
of  Mr.  W.  Duthie,  of  Collynie,  and  thence  to  the  rruiekshank 
herd. 

"  Females  have  from  time  to  time  been  imported.  The  iirst 
batch  of  Lincoln  Red  females  do  not  appear  to  have  done  well. 
They  did  not  maintain  themselves  in  good  condition.  Ninei  een 
purebred  Coates  Shorthorn  cows  have  also  been  imported  for 
the  purpose  of  breeding  bulls  for  use  on  the  ranch,  and  for  sale. 
Such  home-bred  purebred  bulls  find  a  ready  market.  The 
imported  cattle,  after  becoming  acclimatised,  do  just  as  well  on 
the  veld  as  the  grade  cattle  reared  on  the  estate.  Age  for  age, 
the  females  bred  on  the  ranch  are  equal  in  size  to  the  imported 
animals.  The  bulls  are  smaller,  however,  as  no  attempt  is 
made  to  force  their  maturity. 

'  Taking  the  original  mixed  herd,  each  generation  shows 
some  improvement  over  the  original,  but  now  and  then  a 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


247 


throw-back  appears,  and  they  will  appear  for  a  number  of 
years.  Contrary  to  expectation,  the  higher  graded  animals 
from  the  original  cows,  with  strong  Shorthorn  foundation,  of 
which  there  are  now  four  generations  represented  on  the  ranch, 
do  not  show  any  tendency  to  lack  of  vigour  and  hardiness, 
being  quite  as  robust,  if  not  more  so,  than  the  original  cattle. 
This  robustness  of  constitution,  with  the  consequent  ability  to 


ZEBU  HEIFERJFROM  SOUTHERN  INDIA.     NELLORE  VARIETY 

make  the  utmost  use  of  the  veld,  has  been  secured  by  a  fairly 
strict  selection  of  breeding  females  and  a  very  strict  adherence 
to  substance,  strength,  and  vigour  of  constitution  in  the  sires 
used. 

"In  addition,  taking  seasons  into  consideration,  the  suc- 
ceeding generations  show  progressively  greater  tendency  to 
early  maturity,  thus  demonstrating  that  the  finer  bred  cattle 
can  make  as  good  or  better  use  of  the  veld  than  their  presum- 
ably more  hardy  forbears.  The  same  also  holds  for  the  lower 


248  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

grades,  from  the  very  mixed  Jersey -Friesland  and  Africander 
foundations.  This  finding  encourages  the  owner  of  the  ranch 
in  his  idea  of  persisting  with  Coates  Shorthorn  bulls  of  the 
right  stamp.  The  paramount  idea  has  been  to  produce  an  ox 
matured  at  three  to  four  years,  and  dressing  up  to  800  Ibs., 
from  the  veld  alone. 

"  At  present  on  the  ranch  there  are  some  2500  head  of  cattle, 
which  numbers  are  being  gradually  augmented.  Of  this  num- 
ber, 1000  head  are  breeding  cows  and  heifers.  For  this  number 
of  females  there  are  kept  eighteen  bulls. 

"  The  cows  are  offered  service  at  any  time  during  the  year, 


MERINO  PRIZEWINNERS  AT  WITWATERSRAND  AGRICULTURAL  SHOW, 
SOUTH  AFRICA 

there  being  no  fixed  service  period.  Thus,  calves  are  dropped 
every  month.  The  method  of  service  is  to  take  the  stabled 
bulls  down  to  the  various  watering  places  and  to  await  the 
arrival  of  the  cows  from  the  veld.  In  this  way  there  may  be 
served,  say,  four  or  more  cows  in  a  morning,  and  in  the  after- 
noon different  bulls  are  taken  down.  It  has  been  found  in- 
advisable to  allow  a  bull  more  than  three  cows  in  any  one  day. 
Thus,  the  dry  herd,  at  the  height  of  the  season,  will  require 
the  services  of  as  many  as  six  different  bulls  in  the  one  day. 
In  the  far  distant  camps  there  are  erected  bull  sub -stations,  so 
that  the  bulls  may  be  kept  at  their  stations  without  the  long 
trek  back  to  headquarters,  being  fed  and  cared  for  near  one  of 
the  watering  installations. 


SOUTH  AFRICA  249 

"  Heifers  are  mated  usually  about  twenty  months  to  two 
years  old,  according  to  size,  it  having  been  found  that  to  allow 
them  to  go  any  longer  engenders  barrenness,  owing  to  their 
being  too  fat  to  settle  to  the  bull.  Taking  the  average,  the  per- 
centage of  calves  per  annum,  or  the  breeding  efficiency  of  the 
herd,  is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  60  to  65  per  centum.  As 
stated  above,  calves  are  dropped  every  month.  It  has  been 
observed  that  those  calves  born  in  the  dry  winter  months  are 
slower  in  maturing.  It  is  a  matter  for  consideration  whether 
the  additional  expense  for  bulls  and  the  risk  incurred  in  having 
a  definite  breeding  season  would  be  entirely  counterbalanced 
by  the  admittedly  greater  uniformity  of  the  young  stock  which 
would  ensue.  Calves  are  weaned  usually  at  ten  months,  or 
younger.  Bull  calves  are  castrated  at  from  three  to  ten 
days  old.  Weaners  are  run  well  towards  the  outskirts  of  the 
ranch,  and  after  a  year  those  heifers  of  satisfactory  size  are 
returned  to  one  of  the  breeding  herds.  Oxen  are  drafted  on 
to  good  rearing  veld  at  nine  months,  well  away  from  the  centre 
of  the  ranch,  where  they  grow  out,  and,  when  about  three  years 
of  age,  drafts  of  oxen  are  taken  on  to  the  best  veld  and  given 
some  months  in  which  to  finish. 

"  The  oxen  reared  on  the  ranch  are  large,  of  a  desirable  beef 
type,  though  somewhat  long  in  the  leg,  and,  perhaps,  rather 
coarse  in  the  front ;  they  are  weighty  and  otherwise  of  good 
conformation,  and  dress  out  well  at  slaughter. 

"  The  following  particulars  of  oxen  from  the  ranch  at  four 
years,  exhibited  at  the  agricultural  show  at  Johannesburg  on 
the  6th  to  9th  April,  1915,  and  slaughtered  at  the  municipal 
abattoirs,  may  be  of  interest.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  these 
oxen  were  retained  at  the  ranch  as  not  being  good  enough  to 
go  forward  with  the  consignments  about  four  months  earlier, 
and  consequently  they  are  a  little  older  than  the  average  : — 


Catalogue 
Number. 

Live  Weight 
Shrunk. 

Carcase 
Weight. 

Estimated 
Frozen  Weight. 

Dressing 
Untrim'd. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

Ibs. 

o/ 

/o 

649 

1165 

695 

660 

59-0 

648 

1126 

683 

649 

60-6 

656 

1208 

727 

690 

60-0 

647 

1176 

694 

659 

58-0 

654 

1210 

725 

688 

60-0 

250  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

"  Description  of  No.  649. — Shorthorn,  steer,  four  years. 
Condition  good  to  choice,  smooth,  loin  fairly  well  covered; 
ribs  require  to  flesh  down  further. 

"  Type. — Beef,  good  width  and  depth,  little  paunch,  in- 
clined to  be  leggy,  not  coarse.  Hindquarters  excellent.  Shape, 
a  little  lacking  in  flesh,  quarter  good,  twist  and  flank  fairly  full. 
Skin  handles  well. 

"  Carcase. — Covering  smooth,  half-inch  of  fat  over  loin, 
slightly  hollow  in  loin,  and  lacking  a  little  over  the  shoulder 
and  ribs.  Slight  marbling,  fine  quality,  lean  bright.  Fat, 
light  yellow. 

"  The  description  of  the  others  would  be  in  many  respects 
similar  to  the  foregoing." 


SHEEPBREEDING  IN  SOUTH  AFRICA 

Despite  droughts  and  the  ravages  of  diseases  the  flocks  of 
South  Africa  (British)  increased  from  16,000,000  in  1904  to 
36,000,000  in  1913.  According  to  a  recent  issue  of  the  Farmers* 
Weekly,  published  at  Bloemfontein,  the  estimated  clip  for  the 
season  1917-18  was  490,000  bales.  This  estimate  is  arrived 
at  by  taking  the  average  quantity  of  bales  exported  from 
South  Africa  during  the  last  five  years,  but  owing  to  the  season 
throughout  the  Union  having  been  exceptionally  good,  the 
clip  is  likely  to  exceed  500,000  bales. 

The  number  of  bales  of  last  season's  wool  left  in  the  open 
market  was  478,348. 

The  quantity  of  wool  sold  on  open  market  and  shipped 
during  the  period  1st  August,  1917,  to  31st  March,  1918,  was 
as  follows  : — 

WOOL  IN  GREASE 

Destination.  Lbs.  Value. 

United  Kingdom             773,943  £46,343 

France 59,800  4,625 

Canada 171,672  10,277 

United  States  of  America          . .          . .  34,664,093  2,334,872 

Japan 30,374,619  2,514,875 


Total     ..  ..     66,044,127  £4,910,992 

Average  price  per  grease  lb.,  17-89d. 


SOUTH   AFRICA  251 


SCOURED  WOOL 

Destination.                                                      Lbs.  Value. 

United  Kingdom             18,017  £2,522 

Canada 239,020  28,186 

United  States  of  America          ..          ..        7,185,322  1,203,179 

Japan 986,735  168,083 


Total 8,429,094  £1,401,970 

Average  price  per  scoured  lb.,  39- 93d. 

Total  grease  and  scoured  in  bales  of  grease,  265,080  bales. 

In  wool  production,  therefore,  South  Africa  has  made  great 
strides,  and  the  limit  of  expansion  has  not  yet  been  reached. 
The  writer  visited  the  country  about  seven  years  ago,  and  it 
wa&  comparatively  easy  to  note  the  scope  for  development  of 
the  wool  industry.  There  was,  at  that  time,  a  remarkably 
keen  interest  in  sheep,  especially  the  Merino,  and  there  were 
many  fine  stud  flocks,  and  millions  of  pure  wool-bearing  sheep. 
But  at  the  same  time  one  could  not  look  upon  the  vast  extent 
of  unfenced  veld  without  wondering  how  much  fencing  wire 
and  subdivision  would  add  to  the  carrying  capacity. 

One  could  not  notice  the  numerous  flocks  of  goats,  Per- 
sian sheep,  and  bastard  sheep,  without  picturing  the  state  of 
affairs  when  these  nondescript  flocks  are  replaced  by  pure- 
woolled  sheep. 

Then  the  necessity  for  draining  swamps,  and  providing  pure 
sources  of  water  supply,  planting  trees  for  shelter  purposes, 
and  grazing  flocks  within  fenced  areas,  instead  of  shepherding 
them  all  day  and  kraaling  them  at  night,  were  being  realised 
by  progressive  sheepfarmers.  Another  factor  most  noticeable 
was  the  splendid  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  South  African 
Government  to  develop  the  sheep  and  wool  industry,  Experi- 
mental farms  and  colleges  were  established  throughout  the 
Union.  The  services  of  capable  experts  were  at  the  disposal  of 
sheep -owners,  and  behind  it  all  was  a  magnificent  laboratory 
of  research  conducted  by  Sir  Arnold  Theiler,  devoted  to  assist- 
ing stock-owners  in  combating  the  numerous  and  deadly 
diseases  that  affect  live-stock  in  South  Africa. 

All  these  facts  have  counted  in  the  development  of  the  sheep 
and  wool  industry  in  South  Africa,  but  another  factor  might 
well  be  mentioned. 

After  the  smoke  of  the  Boer  War  had  cleared  away,  the 


252 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


African  farmer  of  Boer  extraction  saw  that  he  was  only  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  days  from  the  London  market.  He  appreciated 
the  proximity  to  such  a  market,  and  he  set  out  to  develop  a 
connection  with  it.  At  the  time  of  the  Boer  War,  South  Africa 
imported  large  quantities  of  meat,  chiefly  from  Australia,  and 
for  years  after  the  war  these  importations  continued.  The 
imports  of  beef  and  mutton  in  1903  (excluding  the  quantities 
brought  into  South  Africa  by  Orange  Free  State)  were  valued 
at  £2,885,000  ;  in  1906,  £757,000  ;  in  1913,  £105,000  ;  and  in 
1915,  £593,  so  that  the  quantities  steadily  diminished  each 
year,  until  in  1915  they  almost,  reached  vanishing  point.  On 
the  other  hand,  exports  show  a  consistent  increase  from  1914, 
when  55  tons,  valued  at  £2,408,  were  sent  overseas  ;  in  1915, 
2274  tons  were  sent,  value  £86,000  ;  and  in  1916,  5520  tons, 
total  value  £215,735,  2150  tons  being  for  civilian  and  3370  ton* 
for  army  purposes.  The  figures  of  last  year  are  not  yet  avail- 
able, but  the  estimate  is  21,000  tons — 1000  tons  for  the  United 
Kingdom  and  20,000  tons  for  the  Army,  all  these  quantities 
being  exclusive  of  supplies  for  ships'  stores. 

Australia  has  a  particular  interest  in  the  development  of  the 
sheep  and  wool  industry  of  South  Africa,  because  South  African 
sheep -breeders  have  for  many  years  been  extensive  purchasers 
from  Australian  stud  Merino  flocks.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
leading  stud  flocks  of  Australia  are  just  as  familiar  to  South 
African  stud -breeders  as  they  are  to  Australian  and  the  merits 
of  rival  Australian  flocks  are  just  as  hotly  discussed  in  South 
Africa  as  they  are  in  their  own  country,  probably  more  so. 

The  importations  of  Australian  stud  Merinos  into  South 
Africa  from  1906  until  the  outbreak  of  war  have  been  as 
follows  : — 

Year. 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

South  African  stud-breeders  have  shown  great  enterprise, 
and  have  proved  themselves  to  be  equal  to  their  Australian 


No.  of  Sheep. 

Value. 

10,782 

£29,489 

5,380 

21,495 

6,932 

15,720 

1,421 

15,774 

2,344 

20,197 

2,440 

20,470 

5,234 

35,545 

5,349 

36,165 

2,581 

18,370 

SOUTH  AFRICA  253 

contemporaries,  when  it  comes  to  backing  their  fancies  with 
their  cash.  Many  high-priced  rams  have  gone  to  South  Africa. 
Even  the  war  and  the  absolute  dislocation  of  shipping  between 
Australia  and  South  Africa  did  not  daunt  the  spirit  of 
South  Africa  to  progress,  for  Mr.  J.  S.  Minnaar,  of  Cape  Colony, 
purchased  a  ram  from  F.  S.  Falkiner  and  Sons,  Limited, 
Wanganella  Estate,  for  2000  guineas  during  the  war.  This 
was  a  plucky  purchase  in  times  like  those,  when  shipping  was 
so  disorganised. 

Mr.  P.  Greathead,  presiding  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the 
Transvaal  Land-Owners'  Association  in  May,  1919,  said  : — 

"  It  is  only  since  the  war  began  that  we  have  become  a 
meat  exporting  country,  and  until  quite  recently  we  had  not 
really  recovered  from  the  heavy  wastage  of  stock  during  the 
Anglo-Boer  War.  Indications  are  very  definite  in  showing 
that  big  expansion  is  in  progress.  Quite  a  number  of  ranching 
companies  have  been  formed,  and  individual  farmers  are  pay- 
ing much  attention  to  their  live-stock  husbandry,  as  is  shown 
by  the  greater  appreciation  of  improving  sires.  Never  before 
were  such  prices  realised  for  highly  bred  beef  and  dairy  stock 
as  during  the  last  year.  Reports  on  consignments  of  beef  to 
oversea  markets  have  been  highly  complimentary  to  the  stock 
of  the  country  and  are  very  encouraging  to  growers,  and  I 
think  that  many  of  our  members  could  not  do  better  than 
establish  herds  of  cattle  on  some  of  their  bushveld  land,  which 
is  so  highly  suitable  for  the  purpose.  I  think  they  would  find 
that  with  careful  management — which  is  necessary  in  all 
business — their  ranching  efforts  would  be  very  remunerative. 
I  have  recently  gone  into  the  question  of  the  cost  of  production. 
I  find  on  examining  American  statistics  that  it  costs  these 
growers  to-day  thirty  dollars — say,  £6 — to  produce  a  yearling 
steer,  and  that  it  costs  them  forty-two  dollars — say,  £8  8s. — to 
produce  a  two-year-old  marketable  steer.  Allowing  that  the 
American  two-year-old  steer  is  equal  in  weight  to  our  four- 
year-old,  I  find  that  we  can  produce  meat  at  from  one-third 
to  one-half  the  cost  to  the  American  grower.  General  agri- 
cultural statistics  in  this  country  are  not  available,  but  by 
examining  my  own  Company's  case,  and  the  cases  of  numbers 
of  other  cattle  farmers,  I  find  that  the  cost  of  raising  a  four- 


254  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

year-old  steer  on  bushveld  land,  at  ten  shillings  an  acre,  is 
from  £3  to  £4.  Our  four-year-old  steer  and  the  American  two- 
year-old  would  weigh  approximately  600  Ib.  dead  weight  each. 
Scrub  cattle  with  improving  bulls  will  yield  £2  per  head  per 
annum  throughout  the  herd  in  increased  value  if  economically 
managed,  or,  say,  20  per  cent  per  annum  on  outlay.  There  are, 
however,  varying  factors,  namely,  seasonal  management, 
scale  of  operations,  etc.  The  larger  the  scale,  within  limits, 
the  greater  the  net  profit.  A  600-lb.  steer  would  cost  approxi- 
mately £4  to  raise,  say,  13s.  4d.  per  100  Ib.  The  present 
world's  market  value  at  any  of  the  South  African  abattoir  or 
chilling  centres  is  48s.  per  100  Ib.  for  prime  beef,  40s.  for 
medium,  and  35s.  for  so-called  compounds.  Each  four  to  five- 
year-old  steer  will  bring  £12  to  £15  and  upwards  on  the  market. 
The  cost  of  marketing,  transportation,  etc.,  would  vary  with 
circumstances  from  10s.  to  20s.  per  beast  in  the  round.  There 
would  therefore  be  from  £7  to  £10  profit  on  each  steer  sold.  I 
think  the  inference  is  obvious.' 


MADAGASCAE 

THE  French  Island  of  Madagascar  lies  off  the  coast  of  East 
Africa,  and  runs  1000  miles  north  and  south,  with  a  breadth 
up  to  360  miles.  It  is  226,000  square  miles  in  extent,  and  is 
mostly  mountainous  country,  from  3000  to  5000  feet  high, 
with  healthy,  well-grassed  undulating  valleys  and  low  hills. 
Madagascar  has  large  herds  of  cattle  (the  tax  paid  by  the 


SOISSONNAIS    AND    RAMBOUILLET    RAMS 

Held  together  by  "Tanosy" shepherd. 

natives  some  years  back  was  on  5,000,000  head)  and  it  is  an 
ideal  country  for  cattle-raising.  The  herds  number  fully  seven 
millions  at  present,  and  beef  is  already  being  exported.  In 
a  few  years  France  could,  by  the  importation  of  stud  bulls, 
enormously  increase  not  only  the  numbers,  but  the  weight  of 
the  present  stock,  and,  without  trouble,  fill  the  gaps  in  their 
own  meat  supply  by  beef  from  this  beautiful  island  of  theirs. 
Any  visitors  to  Madagascar  must  be  impressed  with  the 
richness  of  the  grasses,  not  only  in  the  numerous  valleys, 
but  on  the  hills.  Burnt  year  after  year  by  big  fires,  it 

255 


256  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

springs  up  again  with  a  profusion  much  more  than  sufficient 
for  the  present  stock  running  on  it. 

In  fact,  the  pasture  land  of  Madagascar  is  almost  unrivalled 
in  any  part  of  the  world.  A  committee  which  was  appointed 
recently  by  the  French  Government  to  investigate  in  what 
manner  the  native  cattle  would  be  able  to  contribute  towards 
the  meat  supplies  of  France,  has  sent  in  its  report.  The 
following  conclusions  were  arrived  &i  : — 

"  (1)  The  introduction  of  live-stock  from  Madagascar  into 
France  can  be  realised  very  soon,  and  all  that  is  needed  is 
transportation  facilities  ;  (2)  if  the  cold  store  works  actually 
existing  in  Madagascar  can  increase  their  capacity,  the  expor- 
tation of  live-stock  will  be  followed  by  that  of  frozen  meat  ; 
(3)  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  from  the  shipowners  or 
navigation  companies  the  boats  needed  for  the  transportation 
of  live-stock  intended  for  exportation,  the  committee  thinks 
that  as  the  State  is  the  sole  purchaser  of  this  live-stock,  it  ought 
to  have  entire  charge  of  its  transportation  ;  (4)  it  would  be  in 
the  Government's  interest  to  employ  competent  persons  in  the 
shipping  and  landing  centres  to  inspect  the  shipping  operation 
and  purchasing  of  the  cattle  ;  (5)  it  would  be  advisable  to  leave 
plenty  of  room  for  private  enterprise." 

The  export  of  canned,  frozen,  and  salted  meats  is  even  now 
an  important  industry  in  the  island,  some  thousands  of  tons 
being  shipped  annually. 

The  large  establishments  at  Majunga  (belonging  to  Messrs. 
Vestey  Bros.),  Diego-Suarez,  and  Tamatave  are  busy  turning 
out  meat  for  the  French  Army. 

The  bulk  of  the  beef  exported  from  Madagascar  was  put  up 
in  tins  until  recently,  when  the  Societe  Rochefortaise,  from  its 
Tamatave  plant,  began  shipping  frozen  beef  by  the  ships  of  the 
Compagnie  Havraise  Peninsulaire  de  Navigation  a  Vapeur. 

The  three  ships  already  fitted  out  with  cold  storage  chambers 
for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  products  of  the  Societe  Rochefor- 
taise can  accommodate  200  tons  of  frozen  meat  each,  which 
space  corresponds  with  the  present  capacity  of  the  local  storage 
plant.  But  this  plant  is  soon  to  be  enlarged  so  as  to  be  able  to 
store  500  tons  of  frozen  meat,  and  at  least  three  additional 
ships  are  to  be  fitted  out  with  cold  storage  chambers  of  equal 


MADAGASCAR 


257 


capacity.     The  cold  storage  space  in  each  of  the  three  ships 
already  being  used  can  be  increased  to  500  tons. 

The  question  of  drawing  largely  on  Madagascar  and  other 
French  colonial  possessions  for  the  meat  supply  of  the  French 
Army  and  civil  population  has  been  under  consideration  for 
some  time  in  official  and  commercial  circles  in  France.  Several 
attempts  have  been  made  by  private  concerns  to  import  live 
beeves  from  the  island  into  France,  but  these  trials,  it  seems, 


YOUNG  MADAGASCAR  BULL 

Between  3  and  4  years  of  age,  and  one  of  the  principal  herd  boys  on 

Mr.  Sutherland's  property.  •   The  hump  is  a  good  one  for  a 

three-year-old  bull. 

were  not  encouraging  because  of  the  long  and  severe  voyage, 
especially  during  the  passage  through  the  Red  Sea. 

Large  numbers  of  Zebu  cattle,  averaging  about  800  Ibs.  live 
weight,  are  being  shipped  to  Salonika  for  the  French  troops. 

Madagascar,  as  anyone  may  see  by  a  glance  at  the  map,  is 
situated  right  on  the  "  wool  belt  "  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere, 
although  rather  to  the  north  of  the  great  pastoral  lands  of 
Australia,  South  Africa,  and  South  America. 

There  is  a  considerable  variety  of  climates.  The  east  coast 
has  a  heavy  rainfall,  and  no  really  cold  season.  The  extreme 
south  and  the  western  slopes  of  the  main  range  of  mountains 
are  much  drier,  and  in  the  south  they  have  some  very  cold 


258  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

weather  in  winter.  The  difference  between  the  eastern  and 
western  sides  of  this  range  of  mountains,  which  extends  right 
through  the  island,  is  very  striking  when  you  travel  from  Fort 
Dauphin.  Up  to  a  small  village  called  Ranopiso,  twenty-two 
miles  from  Fort  Dauphin,  vegetation  of  the  ordinary  tropical 
character  and  rice  fields,  mango,  and  banana  trees  are  con- 
spicuous on  all  sides.  Between  Ranopiso  and  Bevilang 
("  Many  Saucepans  "),  however,  a  long  range  of  hills  is  crossed, 
and  the  character  of  vegetation  changes  completely.  At 
Bevilang,  which  is  only  ten  miles  from  Ranopiso,  the  vegeta- 
tion is  of  a  unique  character,  and  all  the  trees  are  powerfully 
armed  for  resisting  drought.  In  many  instances  leaves  have 
practically  disappeared.  The  stem  has  swollen,  and  seems  to 
take  the  place  of  leaves.  Then  these  stems  and  leaves  are 
covered  with  a  thin  film  of  wax,  which  acts  as  a  further  pro- 
tection against  the  evaporation  of  moisture,  while  the  "  latex  " 
or  milky  sap,  which  flows  in  the  bark  of  so  many  trees  and  vines 
of  the  country,  and  provides  some  very  good  rubber,  seems  to 
be  intended  as  a  further  protection  against  drought. 

Another  protection  is  needed,  however,  to  prevent  the  ex- 
termination of  plants  valuable  as  forage,  and  this  is  a  protec- 
tion against  cattle  stock  itself.  This  is  abundantly  provided. 
There  are  more  thorns  to  the  square  yard  in  the  Ondroy  bush 
than  there  are  to  the  acre  of  English  forest.  The  f antsi-holicke,  a 
wonderful  tree,  which  has  been  compared  to  a  forest  of  upturned 
elephant  trunks,  is  covered  from  the  ground  to  its  highest  tip 
by  thorns  about  an  inch  in  length,  disposed  of  regular  spirals 
about  an  inch  or  two  apart.  Between  these  thorns,  and  just 
about  the  same  length,  grow  small,  oval,  flat  leaves,  with  the 
consistence  of  soft  leather. 

The  pastures  are,  however,  of  greater  interest  than  the  bush, 
and  these  I  must  now  describe.  There  are  in  this  part  of  the 
country  two  entirely  distinct  types  of  pasture.  The  one  which 
seems  to  belong  to  the  calcareous  and  sandy  regions  appears  to 
be  ideal  pasture  for  sheep.  In  fact,  the  natives  call  it  "  voln'ny 
ondry,"  or  sheep's  pasture  ;  it  is  short  and  sweet.  The  other 
is  found  mostly  in  granite  regions  and  generally  on  eruptive 
soil.  It  is  called  "  danga,"  and  is  to  Madagascar  what  the 
spear  grass  is  to  Australia.  The  seed  is  not  more  than  about 


MADAGASCAR  259 

half  an  inch  in  length,  but  it  bears  a  long  thread-like  appendix. 
Native  sheep  having  no  wool,  do  not  seem  to  suffer  from  the 
danga,  while  bullocks,  owing  to  their  greater  height,  only 
collect  it  while  grazing,  and  that  around  their  horns  and  eyes. 
If  it  gets  into  the  eye  it  may,  of  course,  be  dangerous,  yet, 
broadly  speaking,  horned  cattle  do  very  well  on  danga. 

Monsieur  S.  L.  Roussel  writes  me  :  "  The  land  on  which  I 
settled  at  first  was  right  in  the  middle  of  eruptive  and  granitic 
hills,  and  renowned  for  its  good  pasture.  The  sheep — both 
native  and  imported  Merinos — did  well  at  first,  and  my  shep- 
herd was  delighted  with  the  abundant  and  rich  growth  of  wool. 
April  came  round,  however,  and  with  it  the  seeding  season  of 
the  danga.  We  soon  saw  that  there  was  only  one  safe  course, 
and  that  was  to  keep  the  Merinos  in.  For  one  of  them,  however, 
it  was  already  too  late  ;  internal  inflammation  had  set  in,  and 
he  died  after  a  week's  illness.  This  was  my  No.  1,  a  full-folded 
Rambouillet,  bought  from  the  French  National  '  Bergerie.' 

"  I  had,  however,  already  looked  round  and  found  that 
between  the  mountains  of  Ambia,  where  I  had  settled,  and  the 
sea  there  was  a  region  of  beautiful  pastures,  covered  with 
voln'ny  ondry,-and  my  arrangements  were  complete  to  transfer 
the  flock  there. 

"  This  transfer  was  no  small  matter.  What  with  two  cart- 
loads of  purebreds,  that  were  too  lazy  to  walk  and  too  valuable 
to  risk  on  the  road,  a  load  or  two  of  lambs  which  were  too  young 
to  walk,  and  some  three  hundred  ewes,  most  of  them  in  lamb 
or  with  young,  the  comparatively  short  trip— only  about  sixty 
miles — took  the  best  part  of  a  week.  The  crossing  of  the 
Mananare  and  of  the  Mandrare  Rivers  were  the  chief  events. 
The  Mandrare  is  a  broad  but  not  very  deep  river,  where  the 
native  ewes  had  the  opportunity  of  showing  off  their  swimming 
abilities,  while  the  purebreds  were  passed  in  a  native  '  lakana,' 
or  pirogue,  cut  out  of  the  trunk  of  a  single  tree. 

"  This  part  of  the  country  appears  to  be  all  that  can  be 
desired  for  sheep.  The  grass  is  good,  there  is  enough  of  bush 
to  provide  shade  and  shelter — very  little  or  none  of  the  thorny 
species  described  above.  There  is  practically  no  running  water, 
but  a  fair  supply  of  good  water  can  be  secured  underground  by 
digging  to  a  depth  of  from  20  to  40  ft.  As  the  natives  will 


260  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

undertake  to  dig  such  a  well  for  you  at  the  contract  price  of 
three  young  bullocks,  and  you  can  secure  those  for  30 /-  to  £2 
each,  the  undertaking  is  not  ruinous.  Well  water  is,  however, 
only  used  here  for  domestic  purposes,  and  sheep  and  cattle— 
except  cart  oxen — are  never  given  water.  The  fact  is  that  the 
abundant  dew  which  they  get  on  the  grass  in  the  morning  is 
quite  sufficient  for  them.  An  abstemious  breed  has  thus  been 
evolved  under  the  special  circumstances  obtaining  here,  and 
this  remark  applies  to  man  as  well  as  to  animals.  Many 
villagers  have  to  walk  three  hours  or  more  to  the  nearest 
water,  and  yet  they  remain  on  the  hill  or  in  the  bush  when 
they  might,  if  they  cared,  move  nearer  to  a  well  or  a  river. 

"  The  rainfall  here  is  irregular,  and  the  land  being  light  and 
sandy,  I  must  provide  for  periods  of  drought.  This  I  am  doing 
by  sowing  some  of  the  various  forage  seeds  which  during  the 
last  drought  have  proved  so  helpful  in  South  Africa  to  the 
few  farmers  who  had  sown  them — phalaris  bulbosa,  paspalum 
dilatatum,  festuca  elatior.  I  am  also  trying  saltbush,  teosinte, 
cowpeas,  and  velvet  beans. 

"  The  appearance  of  a  plough,  or  '  oxen  spade,'  as  I  describe 
it  to  the  natives,  has  caused  a  great  sensation.  It  is,  however, 
as  new  to  the  oxen  as  to  the  men,  and  it  will  take  a  little  time 
until  our  oxen  can  plough  a  straight  furrow. 

'The  real  difficulty  as  regards  land  is  that  of  securing  any 
large  freehold  or  even  leasehold  grazing  land.  All  land  is  open 
to  allcomers,  and  as  the  population,  though  not  very  large, 
is  pretty  well  distributed  over  the  whole  country-side,  it  is 
difficult  to  secure  from  the  Government  the  exclusive  use  of 
any  large  area. 

"  You  will  no  doubt  inquire,  '  What  about  the  native  sheep 
and  cattle  ?  '  Sheep  are  fairly  large  and  strong,  mostly  white, 
with  black  or  brown  spots.  In  first  crosses  with  Merinos  there 
seems  to  be  very  little  black,  mostly  white  and  brown.  As  far 
as  I  can  judge  at  present,  the  brown  is  short  kemp,  while  the 
longer  wool  is  white.  Thus  a  lamb  which  is  quite  brown  at 
birth,  when  it  seems  to  be  covered  with  only  native-bred  kemp, 
may  get  quite  white  in  time,  when  the  wool  appears. 

"As  far  as  I  can  judge,  both  from  the  experience  of  British 
East  Africa  and  from  the  products  of  experiments  started  a 


MADAGASCAR  261 

few  years  ago  in  this  country  by  a  Government  '  vet.,'  the 
second  cross  is  a  great  improvement  on  the  first.  In  fact,  I 
have  seen  two  absolutely  distinct  types  of  crosses  resulting 
from  the  experiments  made  in  this  country.  One  has  white 
wool  and  short  brown  kemp  on  the  back,  and  only  brown  kemp 
on  the  belly  ;  the  line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  regions 
is  quite  definite.  Those  sheep  I  take  to  be  first  crosses,  viz. 
half  bred,  or  crosses  between  half  bred. 

"  The  other  type  has  very  little  or  no  kemp  on  the  back,  and 
has  also  the  belly  covered  with  wool.  Those  are,  I  suppose, 
second  crosses,  viz.  three-quarter  Merinos,  and  no  doubt  also 
sometimes  crosses  between  half  bred,  which  have  taken  the 
Merino  characteristics  both  from  sire  and  dam.  Unfortunately, 
the  vet.  who  started  those  experiments — and  who  is  now  dead — 
was  not  able  to  carry  them  on  himself,  and  distributed  his  small 
flock  amongst  the  military  and  other  Government  officials  of 
the  various  surrounding  stations.  There  they  multiplied,  and 
were  appreciated  on  account  of  the  superior  meat  they  provided 
the  '  mess  '  with,  but  systematic  breeding  was  discontinued, 
and  no  record  kept  of  the  crosses. 

;'  What  I  have  seen  of  these  small  flocks  goes  to  show,  how- 
ever, that  improvement  in  the  wool  can  be  rapidly  secured, 
but  also  that  with  indiscriminate  breeding  there  can  be  an 
equally  rapid  reversion  to  the  native  type.  I  have  seen  in 
these  flocks  sheep  which  I  was  told  were  crossbred,  but  which 
I  certainly  would  have  taken  for  pure  native. 

"  I  tried  at  first  hand-serving,  and  kept  the  rams  separate 
from  the  flock.  I  found,  however,  that  this  was  very  slow  work, 
and  that  the  ewes  were 'somewhat  terrified  by  their  unaccus- 
tomed mates.  I  am,  therefore,  now  letting  the  rams  and  ewes 
run  together,  and  breeding  proceeds  apace. 

"  Summarising,  I  think  that  there  are  excellent  prospects  in 
this  country.  The  land  difficulty  may  make  it  necessary  to 
adopt  another  system  than  in  Australia.  In  fact,  I  am  now 
considering  a  scheme  for  working  hand  in  hand  with  the 
native — I  providing  the  rams  and  they  the  ewes  and  the  pas- 
ture under  their  own  supervision.  I  would  thus  limit  myself 
to  the  breeding  of  stud  rams,  for  which  sufficient  land  can  be 
secured.  This  or  some  other  method  must  be  evolved  for 


262  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

getting  round  the  land  difficulty,  as  this  country  appears  to 
have  great  possibilities  for  wool  growing,  although,  as  far  as  I 
know,  it  does  not  so  far  export  one  bale  or  even  1  Ib.  of  wool." 

Mr.  W.  Sutherland,  Ambohijanahary,  Ambatondrazaka, 
Madagascar,  writes  me  that  there  are  scarcely  any  English 
cattle-breeders  in  the  country.  He  says  :  "  There  is  the  Cie 
Generale  Frigorifique  a  Majunga.  The  manager  is  an  Aus- 
tralian, and  there  are  a  number  of  Englishmen  and  Australians 
employed  there.  The  cattle  are  at  present  nearly  all  owned  by 
natives,  excepting  a  few  owned  by  Frenchmen.  Cattle  are  still 
cheap  here  ;  bullocks  fattened  on  manioc,  and  giving  about 
660  Ibs.  of  meat  nett,  are  selling  at  £6,  while  those  fattened  on 
grass,  and  giving  about  440  Ibs.  of  meat,  sell  at  about  £4." 

Other  French  colonies  from  which  supplies  of  cattle  can  be 
procured,  and  where  they  are  only  awaiting  good  modern 
methods  to  increase  in  numbers  and  quality,  are  Algeria,  Cam- 
boa,  and  Senegal. 

There  is  a  freezing  plant,  known  as  the  Lyndiane  works,  in 
Senegal,  on  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  belonging  to  the  French. 
During  the  latter  half  of  1916,  13,198  quarters  of  frozen  beef 
were  shipped  to  the  French  military  authorities.  The  hearts, 
livers,  brains,  tongues  and  kidneys  were  also  frozen  and  shipped 
to  France  in  95  Ib.  cases.  There  are  great  prospects  for 
Senegal  when  good  stud  bulls  are  imported  and  scientific 
breeding  introduced. 

MUTTON  EXPORTS  TO  FRANCE 

According  to  a  report  of  the  Marseilles  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
the  North  African  colonies,  Algeria  and  Tunis,  exported  to 
France  supplies  of  mutton  estimated  as  follows  :  1909, 
1,120,729  sheep;  1910,  1,256,908;  1911,  968,304;  1912, 
812,865  ;  1913,  1,286,985  ;  giving  a  total  of  5,445,791.  This 
makes  an  average  of  1,089,158  sheep  per  year.  During  the 
war  the  exports  were:  1914,  711,126;  1915,  1,176,412; 
1916,  861,695;  1917,  659,136;  1918,  300,000;  totalling 
3,708,369  sheep.  This  gives  an  average  of  741,673  sheep  per 
year. 


MOEOCCO 

THIS  country  is  a  surprise  to  those  who  take  the  trouble  to 
visit  it.  Eecently  a  friend  of  mine  from  South  Australia, 
Mr.  B.  G.  Young,  a  thoroughly  practical  man,  was  engaged 
by  the  French  Government  to  report  on  its  pastoral  and 
agricultural  possibilities,  and  in  an  interview  I  have  had 
with  him  on  his  return  said  :  "I  travelled  over  3,000  miles 
during  the  two  months  I  was  there,  always  by  motor,  and 
found  good  to  excellent  roads  most  of  the  journey.  I  found 
much  of  it  covered  with  herbage,  with  excellent  native  salt 
bush  at  places,  and  with  wild  flowers  in  profusion.  A  very  large 
area,  in  fact  7,000,000  acres  of  cultivation  :  wheat,  oats, 
barley,  maize,  peas  and  beans.  I  have  never  seen  such  prolific 
crops  of  the  two  latter.  There  is  another  10,000,000  acres  fit 
for  cultivation  and  a  balance  of  about  8,000,000  acres  too 
stony  or  arid,  but  none  of  it  could  be  called  real  desert 
country.  Thirty  thousand  tons  of  beans,  6,000,000  bushels 
of  barley,  and  1,500,000  bushels  of  wheat  were  exported  to 
France  last  year. 

"  No  machinery  at  all  is  used,  all  the  work  is  done  by  hand 
with  the  old-fashioned  flail  for  the  thrashing.  I  covered 
360  miles  north  and  south  with  a  depth  of  120  miles  from  the 
sea  to  the  ranges.  This  area  has  a  rainfall  averaging  from 
12  to  30  inches  per  annum  ;  it  is  very  regular,  and  droughts 
are  rare.  The  land  rises  gradually  from  the  sea  to  the  ranges, 
which  average  12,000  feet  at  the  highest  point.  Abundant 
water  is  to  be  found  over  most  of  it,  with  good  rivers  and 
sub-artesian  supplies  at  from  15  to  30  feet  on  the  lower  levels. 
One  of  the  most  striking  characteristics  is  the  heavy  dews. 
These  occur  almost  nightly,  and  soak  one  to  the  skin.  There 
is  very  little  grass  of  any  sort.  I  think  the  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  country  swarms  with  snails  and  these  have  eaten  it 

263 


264  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

out  during  past  years.  They,  however,  can  be  easily  got  rid 
of  by  cultivation.  There  is  almost  an  entire  absence  of 
trees.  On  the  ranges,  however,  cedars  are  plentiful,  and  on 
one  part  in  the  north  there  is  the  forest  of  Marmora,  consisting 
of  300,000  acres  of  cork  elms. 


LIVE  STOCK 

"There  are  6,000,000  merino  sheep  and  1,000,000  cattle,  a 
small  beast  showing  distinctly  a  Jersey  type.  The  sheep  are 
poor  specimens  in  type,  giving  about  3|  Ibs.  of  mushy  wool, 
without  character  with  a  pre-war  value  of  about  Is.  to  Is.  Id. 
per  fleece.  The  sheep  industry  is  carried  out  in  a  most  primi- 
tive way,  rams  and  ewes  mate  when  they  like,  and  lambs 
come  at  all  times  of  the  year.  No  castration  is  performed,  and 
the  result  is  what  practical  sheep  men  can  expect.  At  shearing 
the  animal  is  tied  and  the  fleece  removed  with  a  crude  pair 
of  scissors ;  the  belly  wool  is  never  removed,  as  the  natives 
believe  it  keeps  the  animal  from  catching  cold.  There  are 
few  or  no  diseases  in  the  country,  a  little  lung  worm  among 
the  lambs,  and  a  little  tick  and  red  water  among  the  cattle, 
but  nothing  of  serious  moment.  The  natives  earn  3  francs  a 
day,  about  2s.  4d.,  and  are  very  ready  to  learn  new  methods. 
They  work  well  if  watched,  but  are  fond  of  gossip  and  talk 
whenever  they  get  a  chance.  I  castrated  a  few  sheep  and  some 
calves  for  their  edification  ;  it  was  wonderful  how  quickly 
they  seized  the  idea  and  the  method  of  doing  it. 

"  There  is  no  fencing  in  the  country  ;  all  the  stock  are 
yarded  at  night,  but  there  are  no  wild  animals  to  injure  them. 
The  cattle  kill  at  about  450  Ibs.  Large  numbers  alive,  with 
sheep  and  pigs,  are  shipped  regularly  to  France.  Negotiations 
are  being  entered  into  with  a  firm  to  erect  freezing  works  at 
Casablanca,  or  some  other  port  on  the  coast,  and  doubtless, 
in  the  future,  there  will  be  a  substantial  export  of  frozen  meat. 
The  pig  industry  is  large  ;  pigs  are  to  be  seen  everywhere. 
They  live  almost  entirely  on  truffles  and  snails,  and  the  flesh 
is  delicious.  A  big  trade  could  be  built  up  at  once  in  frozen 
pork.  There  are  almost  unlimited  possibilities  for  the  industry. 

"  Poultry  is  another  very  large  industry.     Millions  of  eggs 


MOROCCO  265 

are  sent  monthly  to  France  ;    they  cost  about  9d.  per  dozen 
at  the  ports.    All  the  natives  keep  fowls. 

LAND 

"  At  present  land  is  not  procurable,  but  the  French  Govern- 
ment is  making  arrangements  whereby  in  two  years  very  large 
areas  will  be  thrown  open  for  practical  stockmen  and  farmers 
from  other  parts  of  the  world.  Merino  rams  from  Australia 
should  be  introduced,  and  the  weight  of  wool  per  sheep  can 
be  largely  increased  and  the  quality  improved.  Judicious 
imports  of  grade  cattle  will  vastly  increase  the  weight  and 
quantity  of  the  cattle,  and  numbers  can  be  easily  quadrupled. 

"  Morocco  is  only  a  few  hours'  steam  from  the  southern 
French  ports,  and  refrigeration  when  introduced  will  largely 
increase  the  food  supply  of  that  country  and  the  prosperity 
of  the  Protectorate.  France  has  a  very  valuable  asset  in 
Morocco." 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA 

THE  rapid  development  of  British  East  Africa  is  little  short  of 
marvellous  in  view  of  the  many  difficulties  with  which  settlers 
have  had  to  contend.  To  the  Imperial  East  Africa  Company 
is  due  the  credit  of  first  opening  up  the  country,  but  after  years 
of  struggle  its  charters  were  surrendered  to  the  Crown,  and 
some  eighteen  or  nineteen  years  ago  the  only  importance  the 
country  had  in  the  minds  of  outsiders  was  derived  from  the 
fierce  political  strife  which  took  place  over  the  construction  of 
the  Uganda  railway  as  a  backdoor  to  Egypt.  This  undertaking 
was  derided  as  a  useless  waste  of  money  which  would  never 
bring  an  adequate  return,  yet  within  ten  years  of  its  com- 
pletion it  earned  nearly  2J  per  cent  on  its  extravagant  cost  of 
over  £5,000,000,  in  1913  it  earned  3J  per  cent,  and  since  then  it 
has  been  increasing  in  prosperity  yearly.  It  is  now  inadequate 
for  the  needs  of  the  country.  The  main  line  has  a  length  of 
584  miles,  and  links  the  Indian  Ocean  with  Lake  Victoria 
Nyanza,  upon  which  is  a  fine  fleet  of  steamers.  Feeders  or 
branch  lines  have  come  into  existence,  and  further  extensions 
are  being  carried  out. 

The  climate,  although  the  country  is  on  the  Equator,  is  mag- 
nificent. This  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  area  suit- 
able for  white  settlement  consists  of  vast  tablelands  running 
up  from  4000  to  9000  ft.  in  height,  and  culminating  in  the  per- 
petual snows  of  Mount  Kenia  at  an  elevation  of  over  16,000  ft. 
These  tablelands  are  of  great  fertility,  blessed  with  an  abun- 
dant rainfall,  and  in  little  more  than  fourteen  years  over  7000 
white  people  have  made  their  homes  in  a  country  which  for 
centuries  supported  nothing  but  savages  and  teeming  herds  of 
game.  Civilisation  now  exists  in  the  midst  of  savagery.  A 
scantily  clad  native  may  be  seen  intelligently  using  a  telephone 
or  seated  in  his  master's  motor-car.  The  settler  when  tired  of 

266 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA  267 

working  may  take  up  his  rifle  and  shoot  a  gazelle  for  meat,  or 
seek  the  excitement  of  a  battle  with  elephant,  lion,  or  rhino- 
ceros, and  then  return  to  his  comfortable  club  or  electric-lit 
home  ! 

Fourteen  years  ago  land  could  be  bought  or  leased  from  the 
Government  at  a  nominal  figure,  but  settlers  found  it  hard  to 
make  both  ends  meet  owing  to  the  absence  of  markets  for  their 
produce.  Picked  farms  changed  hands  for  a  mere  song,  and 
many  were  surrendered  to  the  Government.  To-day  well- 
developed  coffee  and  sisal  hemp  plantations  are  yielding  rich 


CONGONI,  SHOT   BY   ME,  DUNCAN   CARSON 

returns  to  their  owners.  Thousands  of  acres  are  under  .wattle, 
maize,  wheat,  and  beans.  Sawmills  are  at  work  in  the  forests  ; 
orchards  are  yielding  their  fruit.  Probably  there  is  no  richer 
pasture  in  the  world  than  exists  in  some  parts  of  British  East 
Africa,  and  the  many  stock  diseases  which  used  to  be  rife  are 
rapidly  disappearing  before  scientific  investigation  and  treat- 
ment. Inoculation  provides  immunity  from  rinderpest,  dipping 
prevents  the  dreaded  East  Coast  fever,  and  to-day  it  is  found 
possible  to  graze  highly  susceptible  imported  stock  where  a  few 
year&  ago  the  hardier  native  cattle  succumbed.  There  seems 
little  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  highlands  of  British  East  Africa 
are  likely  to  develop  a  great  cattle  industry. 


268  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

Fourteen  years  ago  infrequent  steamers  dropped  casual  pas- 
sengers in  Mombasa.  Two  trains  a  week  ran  up  to  the  high- 
lands, and  for  several  years  in  Nairobi  the  trains  were  an  event 
of  such  importance  that  clergymen  protested  against  one  of  the 
trains  arriving  on  Sunday  in  that  it  drew  away  nearly  their 
entire  congregation  !  Nairobi  consisted  of  the  Government 
and  railway  offices  and  quarters,  one  or  two  white  tradesmen, 
the  bazaar,  and  a  few  other  Indian  shops.  Metalled  roads 
there  were  none  outside  the  railway  quarters.  The  Govern- 
ment road,  though  laid  out,  was  a  quagmire  bordered  by  a  few 
beginnings  of  buildings.  So  little  did  some  people  believe  in 
East  Africa  that  a  deputation  of  prospective  settlers  was  in- 
fprmed  by  the  Provincial  Commissioner  that  British  East 
Africa  was  not  a  country  for  white  settlement,  and  that  they 
were  not  wanted  ! 

Turning  to  the  land  side  of  the  question,  wonderful  advance 
is  shown.  In  1904  the  majority  of  the  settlers  had  their  hold- 
ings in  the  Kyambu  district,  and  even  in  that  fertile  area  many 
found  it 'impossible  to  make  both  ends  meet.  Land  was  prac- 
tically valueless,  and  quite  a  large  number  of  farms  changed 
hands  for  a  mere  song,  or  were  surrendered  to  the  Government. 
It  is  true  a  slight  boom  set  in  during  the  year  owing  to  the 
rapid  influx  of  new  settlers,  but  when  the  subsequent  reaction 
came  things  were  worse  than  ever,  and  the  optimists  of  the 
country  could  have  easily  been  counted  on  one's  fingers.  Up- 
country  the  position  was  almost  worse  than  round  Nairobi ; 
quarantine  had  brought  the  stock  trade  to  a  standstill ;  depres- 
sion was  everywhere.  Land  then  to  be  had  for  the  asking  has 
increased  in  value  by  leaps  and  bounds  until  improved  Kyambu 
coffee  farms  have  changed  hands  at  over  £25  an  acre,  and  un- 
improved land  at  £12  and  over  an  acre.  Many  of  the  big  graz- 
ing areas  throughout  the  country  have  proved  valuable  agricul- 
tural lands,  and  have  been  split  up  into  small  blocks  selling  at 
up  to  £2  and  £3  an  acre.  Everywhere  a  steady  increase,  in 
values  has  taken  place. 

However,  it  is  no  place  for  a  man  without  capital,  all  manual 
labour  being  done  by  natives  or  Indian  artisans.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  offers  great  attractions  to  the  young  man  of  moderate 
means,  and  enterprising  enough  to  grapple  with  new  conditions. 


BRITISH   EAST   AFRICA  269 

Sheep  are  of  a  very  poor  class,  being  mostly  grades  between 
the  native  ewe,  fat  tailed,  and  the  purebred  Merino  ram.  Pure- 
breds  imported  direct  into  the  country  do  not  do  well,  and 
apparently  it  is  not  advisable  to  bring  in  high-priced  rams,  for 
they  deteriorate  tremendously.  A  ram  carrying  a  good  dense 
fleece,  with  good  character  and  plenty  of  staple,  will  in  twelve 
months'  time  develop  into  a  haggard -looking  creature,  with 
short,  hard,  weak,  and  altogether  bad  wool.  If  in  a  show  a 
£100  ram  were  awarded  95  points,  and  a  £40  sheep  secured  70, 
then  under  similar  conditions,  in  a  short  space  of  time 
they  would  both  be  reduced  to  about  30  points.  Again,  should 
the  progeny  of  a  high-priced  ram  be  very  good,  it  also  seems  to 
go  back  later  on.  Therefore,  at  present,  it  is  too  early  to  pay 
high  prices  for  sheep.  Some  farmers  have  gone  in  for  the  pure- 
bred Merinos,  which  were  imported  from  South  Africa,  but,  as 
compared  with  the  grades,  they  do  not  do  well.  The  most 
favourable  results  are  obtained  from  crossing  the  Merino  ram 
with  the  native  ewe,  for  the  mothers  are  acclimatised,  having 
been  in  the  country  many  years,  which,  of  course,  is  a  great 
advantage  to  the  offspring.  Then,  again,  the  Merino  ram  is 
crossed  with  the  half  bred,  and  so  on  until  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  distinguish  a  fourth  cross  from  a  half  Merino. 
Stock-owners  have  not  gone  much  further  than  this,  for  the 
sheep  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy,  but  in  those  few  instances 
where  they  have  reached  the  fifth  and  sixth  cross,  the  owners 
are  not  well  pleased,  for  they  say  that  the  lambs  are  mostly 
very  miserable  and  difficult  to  raise. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  sheep  do  not  do  well,  for  in  the  first 
place  good  sheepmen  are  exceedingly  few,  whilst  the  condi- 
tions under  which  sheep  live  are  far  from  being  desirable.  The 
rule  is  for  one  or  two  "  boys  "  to  herd  a  mob  of  about  1000 
during  the  day,  and  for  one  "  boy  "  to  watch  them  at  night. 
The  sheep  are  generally  put  into  "  bomas  "  (brush  yards)  at 
night,  and  unless  these  "  bomas  "  are  frequently  changed,  they 
get  into  a  filthy  state.  It  is  often  the  case  that  they  are  not 
renewed  as  frequently  as  they  should  be,  with  the  result  that 
the  sheep  have  to  camp  on  what  is  practically  a  manure  heap. 

Three  great  things  to  contend  with  are  disease,  stealing,  and 
wild  animals.  There  are  many  diseases  from  which  sheep 


270  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

suffer,  including  scab,  tick,  wire-worm,  nose  disease,  and  blue 
tongue,  but  by  plenty  of  attention  most  of  the  disorders  can 
be  kept  in  check.  The  stealing,  which  is  carried  on  by  the 
natives,  is  perhaps  worse  than  anything  else,  and  is,  indeed, 
very  difficult  to  deal  with,  for  it  is  mostly  done  during  the 
night,  and  the  trouble  is  that  one's  own  herders  are  often 
"  in  "  with  the  thieves.  The  wild  animals  are  becoming  fewer 
as  the  country  gets  more  settled,  but  still  they  account  for  a 
good  many  deaths. 

Cattle  do  very  well,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  this  will  some 
day  be  a  great  cattle  country.  Excellent  results  are  obtained 
by  crossing  native  cows  with  purebred  bulls,  and  it  is  astonish- 
ing that  the  hump  that  is  so  prominent  in  the  mother  is,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  entirely  lost  in  the  progeny.  The  worst 
diseases  amongst  cattle  are  East  Coast  fever  and  rinderpest, 
also  gall-sickness  is  troublesome.  By  systematic  dipping,  East 
Coast  fever  can  be  absolutely  avoided,  and  with  stringent 
quarantine  laws,  and  by  inoculation,  rinderpest  can  be  kept 
well  in  hand.  In  the  majority  of  cases  gall-sickness  can  be 
cured.  Native  cows  sell  at  prices  ranging  from  £6  to  £9,  while 
half  bred  cows  sell  from  £15  to  £20. 

Between  Nairobi  and  Sultan  Hamid  there  is  very  good  coun- 
try for  stock  in  many  parts,  particularly  the  Athi  plains, 
but  the  ticks  are  so  plentiful  on  these  plains  that  without 
regular  dipping  stock  would  fare  very  badly  there.  The  very 
large  herds  of  game  on  the  Athi  plains  are  an  excellent  proof 
of  the  good  qualities  of  the  grasses  there.  There  is  a  grass  on 
these  plains  almost  identically  the  same  as  Rhodes  grass,  but 
it  does  not  grow  as  high  as  this  famous  variety  of  the  dub  grass. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Athi  plains  will  some  day  carry 
large  herds  of  cattle.  The  carrying  capacity  of  this  part  is  very 
high,  but  the  grasses  are  rather  inclined  to  be  watery,  and  the 
stock  fattened  here  will  not  have  good  kidney  fat.  The  con- 
dition generally  will  be  soft  without  artificial  feeding,  and  stock 
will  quickly  lose  their  condition  if  travelled  far  by  road  or  rail. 

The  rainfall  at  Athi  River  Station  averages  about  25  inches. 
Around  Nairobi  the  country  generally  is  too  valuable  as  coffee 
land  to  think  of  using  it  for  carrying  cattle. 

Further  west  beautiful  country  is  found  at  Naivasha  and 


BRITISH   EAST  AFRICA  271 

Nakuru,  and  cattle  do  very  well  indeed  there,  but  as  many 
parts  will  become  valuable  as  coffee  lands  probably  cattle 
will  not  be  raised  in  large  numbers.  The  rainfall  at 
Naivasha  averages  25  inches,  and  at  Nakuru  35  inches,  so  the 
grasses  are  generally  very  green  and  look  beautiful,  but  they 
are  watery,  and  hard  condition  on  stock  cannot  be  expected 
without  artificial  aid.  The  carrying  capacity  is  high  here  also. 
Dry  countries  are  always  better  cattle  countries  than  wet 
countries.  Grasses  always  contain  more  nutriment  in  the 
former. 

There  are  many  parts  of  British  East  Africa  spoken  of  as 
being  good  cattle  country  that  lie  to  the  north  of  the  line  after 
passing  Nairobi. 

The  best  fattening  country  in  British  East  Africa  is  around 
Mouyuni  and  Maktua,  and  to  the  north  of  this  part.  The 
country  there  is  very  dry,  but  the  grasses  are  full  of  nutriment. 
Water  is  very  scarce  in  these  parts.  As  regards  "  German  " 
East  Africa,  the  good  cattle  country  seems  limited  to  a  small 
area  comparatively.  The  country  around  Iringa  is  really  good 
cattle  country.  There  are  no  tsetse  flies  there,  and  it  is  sup- 
posed that  horse  sickness  is  unknown. 

Now  the  war  is  over  there  will  be  a  great  demand  for  stud 
cattle  for  British  East  Africa.  The  first  thing  that  impresses 
the  newcomers  is  the  varied  character  of  the  plains  and  the 
quality  of  the  herbage  growing  thereon.  As  one  gazes  from 
the  window  of  the  spacious  coaches  of  the  Uganda  railway, 
which  traverses  the  whole  length  of  the  Protectorate,  one  sees 
vast  expanses  of  veld  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  in  South 
Africa,  teeming  with  game  of  all  description,  giraffe,  zebra, 
and  a  dozen  varieties  of  antelope,  all  "  fat  as  butter,"  and  all 
apparently  in  excellent  health.  Here  and  there,  at  certain 
seasons,  may  also  be  seen  vast  mobs  of  cattle  and  sheep  belong- 
ing to  the  Masai,  a  very  wealthy  pastoral  community.  The 
best  cattle  country  in  the  Naivasha  district  is  to  be  found  on 
the  Kinangop  Plateau,  a  tableland  lying  between  the  Lake  and 
the  Aberdare  Mountains,  at  an  elevation  ranging  from  7000  to 
9000  ft.  above  sea-level.  The  farms  on  this  plateau  average 
5000  or  more  acres  each,  and  excellent  work  has  been  done 
during  recent  years  by  use  of  purebred  bulls  upon  the  native 


272  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

stock.  One  end  of  the  Kinangop  Plateau  forms  part  of  the  big 
tract  of  500  square  miles  owned  by  the  East  African  Syndicate. 
West  of  this,  and  extending  from  within  a  few  miles  of  Gilgil 
up  to  Laikipia,  the  former  home  of  the  Northern  Masai,  lies  a 
magnificent  tract  of  country  eminently  suited  to  cattle. 

Much  of  this  country  lies  at  an  elevation  of  9000  ft.  above  sea- 
level,  so  that  the  cold  nights  encourage  the  growth  of  plenty 
of  hair,  whilst  disease  is  almost  unheard  of,  which  renders  dip- 
ping unnecessary.  The  farms  in  this  district  are  large,  and 
subdivision  is  gradually  being  effected  by  some  of  the  owners, 
so  that  a  few  years  hence  much  of  this  land  should  carry  its 
full  share  of  stock.  The  herbage  is  all  that  cattle  can  desire, 
red  and  white  clover  being  abundant,  in  addition  to  a  great 
variety  of  natural  grasses. 

Reference  must  be  made  to  the  native  stock  of  British  East 
Africa,  for  it  is  upon  the  native  breeds,  which  are  most  un- 
promising-looking beasts,  undersized,  with  drooping  hind- 
quarters and  of  all  colours,  that  the  improved  Asiatic  Zebu  or 
humped  breed  are  first  set  to  improve.  These  cattle  are  hardy 
and  good  breeders,  and  soon  fatten  upon  grass  alone.  They 
live  out  of  doors  in  all  weathers,  and  although,  as  already  in- 
dicated, their  milking  qualities  have  been  impaired  by  genera- 
tions of  mismanagement,  the  milk  is  exceedingly  rich  in  butter 
fat.  The  lactation  period  is  short,  but  in  spite  of  its  failings 
the  native  cow  responds  to  efforts  for  improvement  in  a  truly 
marvellous  manner. 

The  result  of  the  first  cross  with  a  bull  of  any  pure  breed  is 
almost  invariably  a  calf  which  is  scarcely  recognisable  as  the 
offspring  of  its  mother.  The  hump  disappears,  the  hind- 
quarters become  straightened  out,  the  ribs  are  better  sprung, 
and  more  often  than  not  the  calf  shows  the  character  and  colour 
of  its  sire,  whilst  in  size  it  far  surpasses  any  of  its  low-born 
relatives.  These  calves  thrive  and  grow  rapidly,  and  at  two 
years  of  age  are  'worth  practically  double  the  value  of  their 
dam.  Of  course,  the  improvement  effected  by  the  second  and 
third  cross  is  not  so  clearly  marked  as  the  first,  but  so  much  do 
the  offspring  partake  of  the  character  of  the  purebred  parent 
that  it  is  frequently  almost  impossible  to  distinguish  a  three- 
quarter  from  a  purebred  heifer. 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA  273 

Mr.  Duncan  Carson,  of  Sydney,  wrote  lately  in  The  Pastoral 
Review  as  follows  : — 

"  Paying  a  visit  to  British  East  Africa  for  the  second  time, 
one  cannot  fail  to  be  struck  by  two  facts — one,  the  marvellous 
increase  in  the  values  paid  for  land,  the  other  the  want  of  justi- 
fication for  such  an  advance,  the  exception  being  land  suitable 
for  coffee.  With  this  crop,  returns  from  the  few  plantations 


MR.  MCGREGOR,  MANAGER  OF  THE  NAIVASHA  STUD 
FARM,  B.E.A.,  AND  SERVAL  CAT 

which  are  bearing,  it  is  stated,  show  profits  of  over  £40  per 
acre,  so  high  values  for  the  land  are  justifiable. 

"  On  the  occasion  of  my  first  visit  what  struck  me  as  curious 
was  tfye  great  amount  of  faith  held  by  practically  all  the  settlers 
in  the  future  of  the  country,  and  the  extremely  rare  cases  where 
they  (the  settlers)  were  attempting  to  justify  this  faith  by  buck- 
ing in  in  raising  stock  or  crops  to  show  the  returns  the  land  was 
1  capable  of  producing. 

"  Strange  as  this  may  appear,  this  remains  one  of  the  curiosi- 
ties of  the  position.  Many  of  the  settlers,  both  young  and 
middle-aged,  appear  as  if  they  took  up  the  land  with  the  ex- 


274  THE   WOELD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

pectations  of  making  a  good  rise  out  of  the  unearned  incre- 
ment, not  with  the  desire  to  secure  a  good  income  from  the 
products  of  that  land,  and  show  little  desire  for  real  hard  work. 

"  As  in  all  new  countries,  it  is  the  man,  young  or  old,  who  is 
capable  of  turning  the  land  to  best  account,  either  by  hard 
work  with  his  hands  or  brains  in  directing  his  labour,  who  is 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  country. 

"  Unfortunately,  many  of  the  settlers  appear  to  think  that  by 
habiting  the  land,  by  running  a  few  head  of  cattle  or  sheep,  or 
by  cultivating  a  small  area,  they  are  doing  all  that  can  be 
expected  of  them.  Many  even  do  less  than  that.  For  these 
men  it  has  been  fortunate  that  the  land  speculators  have  come 
along  and  given  them  high  prices,  but  it  is  unfortunate  for  the 
next  man  who  desires  that  block  that  he  has  to  give  the  specu- 
lator his  profit  and  pay  a  price  when  there  are  few  actual  returns 
from  the  property,  in  some  cases  no  returns,  to  show  what  is 
the  real  value  of  the  place.  Interest  is  at  a  high  rate,  and  money 
is  borrowed  from  the  private  lenders  at  from  10  up  to,  I  believe, 
15  per  cent,  so  that  only  high  returns  from  the  farms  would 
justify  the  prices,  from  £2  up  to  £3  per  acre,  which  are  paid  for 
grazing  propositions. 

i,  "  Taking  a  rough  and  rapid  survey  of  the  position,  it  means 
that  the  country  even  yet  has  not  settled  into  its  stride.  Some 
few,  probably  thirty,  in  British  East  Africa,  are  doing  well  out 
of  coffee.  Some  few — probably  a  dozen — are  doing  well  out  of 
sisal  hemp.  Others  make  returns  from  butter,  the  sale  of  sur- 
plus cattle  and  sheep  or  produce. 

"  At  the  time  of  my  former  visit  the  country  for  British  Easb 
Africa  was  very  dry,  but  the  quantity  of  grass  that  clothed  the 
pastures  of  this  visit  made  the  country  very  attractive,  but  it 
would  require  a  long  sojourn  in  the  country  before  one  could 
say  which  were  the  grasses  most  suitable  for  stock,  as  settlers 
in  different  districts  have  widely  different  ideas  as  to  the  feed- 
ing virtues  of  the  different  grasses,  herbs,  and  shrubs,  and  also 
as  to  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  land.  An  Australian  used  to 
the  carrying  capacity  in  Australia  naturally  forms  his  own  idea, 
but  that  is  best  kept*  to  oneself  ;  but,  taking  it  on  the  whole, 
British  East  Africa  is  more  a  cattle  country  than,  at  any  rate, 
one  for  Merino  sheep. 


BRITISH   EAST   AFRICA  275 

"  There  are  some  small  areas  near  Naivasha,  and  to  a  much 
larger  extent  the  country  in  the  Southern  Guaso  Nyiro,  now 
held  by  the  Masai  tribe,  which  an  Australian  would  consider 
good  grade  Merino  sheep  country  ;  but  the  Masai  country  is 
not  available,  and  I  did  not  see  the  other  districts,  where 
reports  say  Merinos  would  thrive — at  any  rate  the  area  is 
limited. 

"  The  Merinos  require  drenching  fairly  frequently  for  wire 
and  tape-worm,  and  are  all  dipped,  but  looked  very  well  indeed 
at  the  time  of  my  visit. 

"  The  settlers  are  keen  on  getting  grade  bulls  for  crossing 
with  the  native  cattle,  and  give  £50  and  over  for  bulls  that  few 
Australian  breeders  would  look  at,  whilst  purebred  Shorthorns 
of  quite  moderate  grade  would  realise  60  to  90  guineas.  Un- 
fortunately, I  did  not  see  Lord  Delamere's  herd,  but  I  under- 
stand it  is  of  a  high  grade,  but  several  of  the  more  enterprising 
settlers  are  getting  quite  nice  herds  of  pure  and  grade  cattle 
that  seem  to  do  well  on  the  natural  pasturage. 

"  What  appealed  to  me  in  shooting  through  the  large  Masai 
reserve  in  the  Southern  Guaso  Nyiro,  and  seeing  the  very  large 
herds  held  by  that  tribe,  was  that  it  would  be  well  worth  a 
settler's  energies  to  get  a  pick  of  the  native  Masai  cattle,  select 
a  good  bull,  and  then  start  and  improve  that  breed.  There  is 
plenty  of  room  for  it,  and  one  is  encouraged  in  this,  as,  were 
one  to  select,  say,  the  top  20  per  cent  out  of  the  huge  herds 
held  by  the  Masai,  one  would  have  a  lot  of  excellent  animals  of 
that  breed,  valuable  not  only  as  beef  oxen,  but  also  as  trek 
oxen.  The  Masai,  whilst  sometimes  using  good  bulls,  frequently 
breed  from  a  bull  because  they  fancy  his  colour,  which  is  gener- 
ally a  freak,  such  as  spotted  black  and  white  or  one  with  some 
brindled  markings  ;  whilst  many  of  the  dun-coloured,  or  red- 
dish brown,  or  fawn-coloured  animals  are  quite  attractive,  and 
would  be  the  type  to  maintain  and  improve. 

"  WhiLt  the  country  has  net  yet  got  into  its  stride,  and  will 
never  be  ?•  country  for  large  individual  herds,  it  undoubtedly 
holds  great  possibilities  of  quick  advancement  for  the  young 
man  who  can  keep  away  from  the  Nairobi  and  Nakura  bars, 
and  will  be  content  to  put  in  some  good  solid  work  in  making 
a  home  for  himself.  Formerly  the  diseases  in  the  cattle  were 


276  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

enough  to  frighten  the  intended  settler,  but  rinderpest,  I  was 
assured  by  the  Government  expert,  was  readily  held  in  check 
by  inoculation,  whilst  the  dreaded  East  Coast  fever  is  quite 
easily  stopped  by  dipping  the  cattle  every  three  days  for  a 
period  of  six  months.  For  an  Australian  this  seems  a  lot  of 
work,  but  as  a  settler  with  300  to  400  head  of  cattle  is  looked 
upon  as  having  a  large  herd,  the  dipping  takes  the  native  herds- 
men (who  become  quite  expert  at  putting  the  cattle  through) 
from  an  hour  to  two  hours.  One  good  advance  has  been  the 
erection  of  these  dips  at  the  various  farms.  Unf6rtunately  for 
the  employer  of  native  labour,  the  introduction  of  so  many  of 
the  Indian  coolies  has  caused  the  adoption  of  their  intensely 
slow  methods  of  working.  If  a  road  is  being  made  the  material 
is  carried  in  small  baskets,  mostly  put  into  basket  by  hand,  and 
then  carried  at  a  very  slow  walk  (about  a  two  miles  per  hour 
rate)  to  its  destination.  To  make  the  most  of  the  available 
labour  this  wants  altering,  though  it  will  take  a  strong  man 
to  do  it,  but  it  would  make  the  labour  twice  as  efficient.  Labour 
is  much  dearer  than  formerly,  but  still  ranges  from  6  to  8  rupees 
a  month  with  food  (posho),  costing,  say,  3  rupees  average,  or 
well  under  a  pound  a  month,  including  food.  The  hours  worked 
vary  a  great  deal,  and  one  settler  gets  on  with  his  labour  much 
better  than  others,  but  it  can  be  taken  as  a  fact  that  labour  is 
getting  dearer  and  more  difficult  each  year.  At  the  same  time, 
the  better  men  are  becoming  more  efficient.  After  all,  the 
natives  do  not  require  much  money.  The  young  men  want 
sufficient  to  buy  one  or  two  wives — the  elder  men  more  wives, 
so  that  they  can  retire  from  work,  and  get  their  shambas  (cul- 
tivated plot)  worked  by  their  wives.  With  most  tribes  it  is  the 
wives  who  do  the  heavy  work. 

"  The  country,  where  the  elevation  is  over  5000  ft.,  is  mainly 
a  very  healthy  one  for  Europeans,  the  climate  delightful,  with 
very  slight  variations  the  whole  year  round.  At  the  lower 
levels  and  in  Uganda,  of  course,  fever  is  prevalent,  and  the 
European  has  to  take  considerable  care  to  avoid  mosquitoes 
and  fly  bites,  and  thus  keep  as  free  as  possible  from  malaria. 
In  Uganda,  which  I  did  not  visit  at  this  time,  the  prospects  are 
stated  to  be  very  great  for  coffee,  rubber,  and  cocoa,  whilst 
cotton  affords  a  not  very  high  return.  To  one  who  is  tired  of 


BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA 


277 


the  never-ending  socialistic  trend  of  Australian  politics,  British 
East  Africa  offers  not  only  the  prospects  of  a  very  remunerative 
field  for  his  energies,  but  at  the  same  time  a  very  healthy  spot 
in  which  to  spend  his  days  whilst  he  can  indulge  in  big  game 
shooting  to  his  heart's  content." 


RED  POLL  DAIRY  HERD,  PROPERTY  OF  MR.  J.  E.  QUESTED,  KENT,  ENGLAND 


SOUTH-WEST  AFRICA 

IN  this  part  of  Africa,  until  recently  owned  by  the  Germans, 
there  are  excellent  grazing  lands  in  the  higher  country.  The 
Herrero  tribe  are  nomadic  cattle  owners,  and  possess  large  herds 
in  Damaraland.  It  is  almost  purely  a  pastoral  country,  agri- 
culture being  confined  to  the  territory  around  Grootfontein, 
Amboland,  and  the  Okavango  Valley.  Since  the  rinderpest  in 
1897  the  country  has  been  practically  free  from  serious  diseases, 
and  stock-raising  can  be  successfully  and  cheaply  carried  out. 
Liebig's  Company  have  recently  obtained  a  big  area  of  cattle 
country,  which  is  a  proof  of  its  value.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
under  good  government  this  country  has  a  great  future  before 
it  for  cattle  and  sheep -raising. 


278 


EGYPT  AND   THE  SOUDAN 

IN  Egypt  there  are  very  large  numbers  of  cattle,  nearly  every 
farmer  keeping  a  few  head,  and  these  are  fed  and  fattened  on 
the  luxurious  fields  of  the  Delta.  During  the  last  few  years  the 
Egyptian  Government  has  taken  steps  to  improve  the  quality 
and  size  of  these. 

Some  seven  miles  out  of  Cairo,  at  Shubri,  there  is  in  existence, 


GROUP  OF  YOUNG  Cows  (IMPROVED),  BY  IBN  SHAKEI, 

3   YEARS   OLD 

under  the  able  control  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Branch,  a  large  stud  of 
thoroughbred  and  Arab  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  This  belongs 
to  the  Sultanieh  Agricultural  Society,  and  was  instituted  some 
years  ago  by  Prince  Hassan. 

Accepting  a  kind  invitation  by  Mr.  Branch,  I  motored  out 
recently  to  inspect  it.  The  drive  was  interesting,  as  I  passed 
through  some  of  the  richest  land  in  Egypt,  rented  at  £22  per 
acre,  and  worth  up  to  £350  per  acre.  Every  description  of  crop 

279 


280  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

looked  in  magnificent  condition.  Veritably  Egypt  is  a  land  of 
plenty.  On  arrival  I  drew  up  at  the  door  of  a  big  brick  pile  of 
buildings,  and  was  taken  to  see  the  stock.  Mr.  Branch's  pro- 
fession is  that  of  improving  the  native  stock,  and  I  saw  some 
most  interesting  results.  Naturally,  mistakes  have  been  made, 
but  that  can  be  taken  for  granted.  For  instance,  Norfolk  rams 
were  introduced  into  the  native  fat -tailed  sheep,  with  the  result 
that  the  tail  was  bred  out ;  then  it  was  discovered  that  no 
native  would  buy  the  sheep  without  the  fat  tails,  so  now  they 
are  busy  breeding  the  tail  back  again.  Egypt  has  very  few 


NATIVE  BULL,  IBN  SHAKEI,  6  YEARS  OLD 

animals  giving  much  fat,  and  the  sheep's  tails,  which  are  almost 
entirely  fat,  giving  up  to  8  Ibs.  weight,  are  naturally  of  great 
value. 

The  first  bull  brought  out  for  my  inspection  was  a  real 
corker,  weighing  2226  Ibs.,  a  native  bull  of  a  light  dun 
colour,  called  Diarb,  seven  years  old.  The  next,  a  little  darker 
in  colour,  and  nearly  as  big,  was  Ibn  Shakei,  six  years  old. 
Then  I  saw  a  younger  one,  three  years  old,  called  Ibn  Khalifa, 
and  next  a  gigantic  buffalo  bull. 

A  group  of  very  pretty  three-year-old  cows  by  Ibn  Shakei 
quite  took  my  fancy.  A  buffalo  cow  of  enormous  proportions 
came  next ;  this  cow  gives  four  gallons  of  milk  per  day,  with 


EGYPT  AND  THE   SOUDAN 


281 


8  per  cent  butter  fat.  I  finished  up  the  cattle  by  a  view  of 
several  beautiful  young  calves,  showing  what  vast  improve- 
ment can  be  made  in  the  native  stock  by  judicious  breeding. 

The  Soudan  also  promises  to  be  a  good  country  for  cattle, 
and  a  port  now  in  existence  in  the  Red  Sea  will  give  it  an  outlet 
for  the  exports  of  live-stock  and  later  on  for  frozen  meat. 
There  are  great  opportunities  for  the  cattle  industry  on  the 
Nile. 


NATIVE  EGYPTIAN  BULL  (IMPROVED),  DIARE,  LIGHT  DUN, 
7  YEARS  OLD.     Weight,  2226  Ibs. 


THE  SHEEP  IN  EGYPT  AND   SOUTHERN 
PALESTINE 

HISTORY 

It  is  apparently  doubtful  whether  the  sheep  is  indigenous  to 
Palestine  and  Egypt,  nevertheless  sheep  history  in  these  climes 
dates  back  many  centuries.  There  are  several  Biblical  refer- 
ences to  sheep  in  Palestine,  and  in  Egypt  a  species  of  sheep 
existed  under  the  early  dynasties,  but  appears  to  have  become 
extinct  about  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  2466  B.C. 

THE  BREEDS 

There  are  about  eight  breeds  of  importance  throughout 
Egypt  and  Southern  Palestine.  Some  by  cross-breeding  are 
of  recent  evolution,  and  considered  fixed  types.  Some  sheep 
are  wholly  brown  or  black  or  white  ;  in  other  cases  there  are 
breeds  and  crosses  for  the  most  part  white,  but  with  black  or 
brown  heads  and  lower  limbs  and  patches  of  colour  on  the 
body.  There  appears  to  be  no  set  down  points  as  to  what  a 
particular  breed  should  conform  with  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  purity  and  fixity  of  type. 

The  most  important  breeds  are  : — 

SAIDI  SHEEP 

A  hornless  breed,  generally  all  black.  Wool  coarse  and 
long.  Sheep  belongs  to  the  district  south  of  Assiut  (Upper 
Egypt).  Being  a  comparatively  heavy  wool  producer,  this 
breed  cannot  withstand  hardships  like  the  lighter-woolled 
breeds,  and  it  is  more  profitably  farmed  on  the  irrigation 
areas. 

EBEIDI  SHEEP 

Another  hornless  breed,  white  in  colour,  and  carrying  what 
we  would  call  a  medium  quality  crossbred  wool.  The  breed 


EGYPT  AND  SOUTHERN  PALESTINE          283 

is  found  in  the  district  south  of  Assiut.    The  Ebeidi  and  Saidi 
are,  comparatively  speaking,  thin-tailed  varieties. 

RAHMANI  SHEEP 

A  horned  breed,  said  to  belong  to  Syria,  from  which  country 
it  has  been  introduced  to  Egypt,  and  flocks  are  scattered 
freely  over  the  waste  lands  about  the  Nile  deltas,  where  good 
grazing  (good  for  Egypt)  is  available  after  the  subsidence  of 
the  annual  flood.  The  wool  is  long,  generally  brown,  rather 
coarse  and  harsh,  and  inclined  to  run  hairy  on  the  tips.  The 
tail  is  of  tremendous  size,  and  would  weigh  anything  from 
6  Ibs.  to  10  Ibs.  according  to  the  general  condition  of  the 
animal. 

OOSEEMI  SHEEP 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  village  of  Ooseem,  Gizeh.  A 
general  purpose  sheep,  and  the  most  popular  breed  in  Egypt. 
The  body  is  white,  skin  white,  but  the  points  are  more  or  less 
of  a  brown  or  reddish  colour.  The  wool  is  shorter  and  finer 
than  that  of  the  above-mentioned  sheep,  and  it  fetches  the 
highest  price  of  Egyptian  wools.  The  sheep  is  compact,  and 
stands  on  fairly  short  legs,  consequently  the  carcases  always 
look  well,  and  the  mutton  commands  a  good  price.  Rams  of 
this  breed  are  eagerly  sought  after.  The  Ooseemi  and  its 
crosses  are  met  with  throughout  Egypt  and  Palestine  and  in 
parts  of  Sinai.  The  tail  is  very  broad  and  very  fat,  with  a 
short,  curly,  attenuated  appendage. 

SUDANI  SHEEP 

This  goat-like  sheep  is  the  most  interesting.  I  am  acquainted 
with  a  stuffed  specimen  of  the  ancient  Moufflon  breed,  which 
is  considered  by  some  authorities  to  be  the  progenitor  of  the 
Spanish  Merinos,  and  indirectly  of  our  Australian  Merinos,  but 
the  Sudani  breed  is  the  real  missing  link  in  sheep  history  as 
far  as  appearances  would  seem  to  indicate.  At  the  Cairo 
abattoirs  the  writer  made  a  close  examination  of  a  few  speci- 
mens of  this  unique  breed.  They  stand  higher  than  any  sheep 

1  have  seen — 3  ft.  to  3  ft.  3  in.  on  the  rump,  which  is  always 

2  or  3  in.  higher  than  the  wither  ;  moreover,  this  measurement 


284  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

was  practically  on  the  skin.  The  legs  are  extremely  long,  thin, 
and  badly  fleshed.  The  barrel  is  gaunt,  flat-sided,  narrow- 
chested,  no  depth,  and  the  spine  projects.  The  head  is  un- 
commonly large  and  ugly,  with  protruding  eye  sockets,  aquiline 
nose,  and,  as  with  other  breeds,  long  lop  ears.  The  neck  is 
very  long  and  thin,  and  the  head  is  usually  supported  hanging 
down  close  to  the  ground.  The  tail  is  long,  and  tapers  to  the 
tip,  which  usually  brushes  the  ground.  The  sheep  may  be  a 
patch-work  colour  scheme  of  black,  fawn,  brown,  and  white, 
generally  two  at  a  time.  Its  covering  is  the  nearest  approach 
to  donkey's  hair  I  have  seen.  In  length  it  is  about  an  inch  on 
the  body,  but  increases  to  3  or  4  inches  on  the  tail  and  lower 
breeches.  In  winter  this  hair  covering  is  supplemented  by  a 
growth  of  very  fine  and  soft  short  wool,  equal  in  texture  to 
ordinary  Merino.  This  supplementary  growth  was  more  in 
evidence  over  the  loins,  and  at  the  time  of  the  writer's  inspec- 
tion, early  summer,  the  cob  web -like  fibres  were  already  coming 
away  from  the  skin.  This  reminds  one  of  early  sheep  evolution. 
The  Sudani  "  wool  "  is  set  down  as  worthless.  The  flocks  of 
this  breed  are  so  scattered,  and  the  quantity  of  actual  wool 
from  each  sheep  is  so  small  (only  three  or  four  ounces)  that  it 
is  impracticable  to  obtain  sufficiently  large  quantities  to  be 
marketable.  Our  soldiers  refer  to  these  sheep  in  many  cases 
"  as  the  goats  which  the  Indian  troops  eat." 

Incidentally  it  might  be  mentioned  that  in  all  Egyptian 
abattoirs  sheep  after  slaughter  are  blown  up  by  hand-bellows, 
the  nozzle  of  which  is  inserted  through  a  small  slit  made  in  the 
skin  on  the  inside  of  the  hind  leg.  The  air  does  not  escape, 
and  the  sheep's  form  swells  to  huge  proportions.  Arab  boys 
apparently  delight  to  beat  the  inflated  forms  with  sticks  in 
order  to  loosen  the  pelt  from  the  superficial  fascia.  Without 
this  treatment  some  of  the  sheep  are  as  hard  to  skin  as  suburbar 
tom-cats.  The  skin  of  the  Sudani  breed  is  very  thick,  and  the 
pelts  are  more  valuable  than  those  of  other  breeds. 

Animal  fat  is  very  scarce  in  this  country,  and  a  strong 
prejudice  exists  against  a  sheep  without  a  fat  tail,  which  is 
almost  an  essential  to  the  sheep's  existence  under  local  environ- 
ment. In  times  of  plenty  fat  is  stored  up  on  the  tail,  and  when 
food  is  scarce  it  is  said  that  the  sheep  absorbs  more  or  less  of 


EGYPT  AND   SOUTHERN  PALESTINE         285 

this  fat  into  the  system.     Similar  fat-tailed  breeds  are  found 
in  Mesopotamia,  Persia.  Turkestan,  and  India. 

MANAGEMENT 

The  fundamental  laws  of  stock-breeding  are  not  very  widely 
known  in  this  country.  The  Arab  is  so  ignorant  in  this  re- 
spect, and  knows  so  little  about  wool  and  conformation  that 
only  very  simple  standards  can  be  set  him  as  a  hint  to  the. 
purity  of  any  breed.  He  is  guided  chiefly  by  colour.  One 
hundred  sheep  are  considered  a  big  flock  for  an  irrigationist, 
and  the  average  area  held  by  native  proprietors  is  approxi- 
mately four  acres.  Those  who  possess  very  small  flocks  can 
hire  rams  or  send  their  ewes  away  for  service. 

On  the  farm  lands  there  are  no  fences.  In  Southern  Pales- 
tine the  boundary  between  neighbouring  properties  may  be  a 
shallow  ditch,  a  cactus  hedge,  or  an  imaginary  line  linking  up 
clusters  of  bulb  plants  set  at  regular  intervals.  The  land  is 
devoid  of  timber.  On  the  irrigation  plots  of  the  Nile  valley 
the  boundaries  are  merely  narrow  footways,  and  on  these  areas 
flocks  must  be  shepherded  always.  It  is  a  common  practice 
to  graze  sheep  by  moonlight  in  order  to  avoid  the  fierce  heat 
of  day.  It  is  only  during  short  periods  in  the  year  that  there 
is  nothing  to  graze,  or  that  it  would  be  impossible  to  prevent 
harm  to  some  growing  crop  by  so  grazing  ;  then  the  sheep  are 
closely  packed  in  "  zeribas,"  fashioned  generally  of  palm  leaves. 
Here  in  these  enclosures  a  mere  sustenance  diet  of  grain  is 
doled  out.  A  zeriba  may  be  a  few  miles  away  from  the  farmer's 
irrigation  plot,  as  no  space  may  be  available  any  nearer. 

For  most  of  the  year  sheep  have  access  periodically  to 
bersim  (a  clover  fodder  crop  like  lucerne),  weeds,  cotton  leaves, 
the  stubbles  of  wheat  and  barley,  and,  in  fact,  the  residue  of 
all  crops  after  harvest.  By  the  way,  there  is  very  little  lucerne 
grown  in  Egypt.  Sometimes  there  is  much  vociferous  argu- 
ment among  shepherds  for  the  couch  grass  grazing  along  the 
banks  of  the  main  irrigation  channels. 

We  cannot  be  sure  of  the  normal  conditions  of  sheep -farming 
in  Southern  Palestine,  but  we  are  certain  that  sheep  are  kept 
only  as  an  adjunct  to  agriculture.  One  can  only  describe  what 
one  has  seen  of  the  remnants  of  the  flocks  about  the  villages 


286  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

since  military  occupation.  The  boundary  between  Egypt  and 
Palestine,  which  meets  the  coast  line  at  Rajah,  is  a  well-defined 
line  of  demarcation  between  typical  desert  country  on  the 
south  and  poor  agricultural  land  on  the  immediate  north. 
Fro/n  Khan  Yunis  almost  to  Beersheba  we  saw  one  vast  crop 
of  barley,  for  the  most  part,  and  the  first  green  country  for 
over  a  year.  All  were  enraptured,  but  its  agricultural  possi- 
bilities and  carrying  capacity  under  grazing  are  apt  to  be  con- 
siderably overestimated.  This  country  was  "  milk  and  honey" 
as  compared  with  the  sand-dunes  of  Sinai  over  which  we  had 
ridden. 

The  growing  season  and  green  season  are  short  ;  the  grasses 
are  few  and  of  poor  variety.  A  grass  of  the  couch  family 
appears  to  be  the  foundation,  and  this,  if  not  eaten  out  by 
stock,  would  alone  remain  after  the  rest  had  dried  and  had  been 
blown  away.  This  applies  to  the  country  south  of  the  Gaza- 
Beersheba  line.  Further  north  the  country  gets  very  rough 
and  stony  in  places,  but  there  are  little  flats  and  hillside 
terraces  of  very  rich  black  soil,  capable  of  growing  almost 
anything.  The  best  grazing  country  was  found  on  the  plateau 
east  of  the  Jordan  valley  and  between  Es-salt  and  Amman. 

The  rainfall  of  Cairo  is  2  in.  per  annum  ;  in  Sinai  and  on  the 
irrigation  areas  it  is  practically  nil.  Gaza,  on  the  coast,  is  said 
to  enjoy  an  annual  average  of  14  in.  ;  the  rainfall*  is  probably 
about  10  in.  further  south  and  inland.  North  of  Beersheba 
the  rainfall  increases.  The  rainy  season  is  short  and  seldom 
fails.  Water  is  very  scarce,  and  on  account  of  the  great 
surface  evaporation  artificial  ground  tanks,  as  we  make  them 
in  Riverina,  would  not  hold  out.  The  Arabs  have  installed  a 
system  of  stone  and  cement  cisterns,  bottle-necked  in  shape, 
and  built  so  that  the  tops  are,  flush  with  the  ground.  During 
the  rainy  season  the  storm  waters  are  directed  into  these 
reservoirs,  which  vary  in  capacity  from  10,000  gals,  to  about 
35,000  gals.  There  may  be  three  or  four  families  drawing  their 
domestic  supplies  from  one  large  cistern,  and  in  addition  a 
couple  of  hundred  domestic  animals  might  have  to  be  watered 
therefrom  throughout  the  year.  As  these  cisterns  are  filled 
but  once  a  year  it  is  obvious  that  the  water  must  be  very  care- 
fully fostered.  Even  in  summer  sheep  and  goats  are  seldom 


EGYPT   AND   SOUTHERN  PALESTINE         287 

watered  more  than  once  in  three  days  in  these  dry  areas  of 
Southern  Palestine.  There  are  no  permanent  streams  south 
of  the  Dead  Sea.  Along  the  Wadi  Ghuzzeh  there  are  shallow 
pools,  which  remain  at  a  certain  level  on  account  of  the  filtra- 
tion of  water  through  the  sandy  bottom  and  from  the  precipi- 
tous banks.  These  sources  of  supply  were  invaluable  to  our 
Light  Horse.  One  seldom  sees  a  pump  or  any  labour-saving 
devices  on  the  farms. 

The  wheat  straw  and  barley  straw  are  conserved  in  shallow 
circular  pits,  and  ensilage  making  has  been  practised  in  this 
country  from  time  immemorial. 

Sheep  are  not  earmarked  or  de-tailed.  The  testes  of  ram 
lambs  are  crushed,  and  development  of  the  organ  ceases. 

The  general  season  for  shearing  in  Egypt  is  July.  The 
sheep  is  held  in  various  positions  by  a  couple  of  natives,  and 
the  wool  is  hacked  off  generally  by  rough -looking  native-made 
blades.  Some  farmers  who  are  near  the  main  irrigation 
channels  swim  their  sheep  a  day  or  two  prior  to  shearing.  A 
few  breeds  are  shorn  twice,  and  are  also  lambed  twice  during 
the  year.  Wool  is  always  sold  through  a  middleman,  who 
usually  ships  to  England,  and  makes  an  unfair  margin  of 
profit.  Collecting  depots  are  established  throughout  the  land. 

In  Sinai  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  extraordinary  sights 
is  the  little  market-place  right  out  in  the  open  desert,  where 
Bedouins,  as  if  responding  to  some  "  mulga  "  wire,  congregate 
periodically  to  sell  and  exchange  their  products.  Very  little 
money  changes  hands  ;  most  of  the  business  is  on  the  basis  of 
"  fair  exchange  no  robbery."  Sheep,  donkeys,  etc.,  are  ex- 
changed for  wheat,  barley,  maize,  etc.  ;  bargains  are  pressed 
to  the  last  grain. 

ENVIRONMENT 

The  environment  of  the  desert  will  not  permit  of  much  im- 
provement in  sheep.  To  pack  much  more  wool  on  the  breeds 
found  here  would  be  to  impair  that  extraordinary  goat-like 
constitution,  which  enables  these  sheep  to  live  out  in  the 
blazing  sun,  travelling  all  the  while  for  days  without  water  in 
search  of  food. 

On  the  irrigation  areas  there  is  certainly  room  for  better 


288  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

sheep,  not  necessarily  introduced  breeds,  but  better  conformed 
types  of  the  fat-tailed  breeds,  if  farmers  would  not  try  to  keep 
more  sheep  than  they  can  feed  properly. 

The  Australian  on  leave  is  familiar  with  the  scavenger  sheep 
of  the  market-places  and  town  streets.  This  lucky  sheep  is 
made  the  pet  of  the  children  ;  he  has  the  run  of  some  filthy 
domicile,  and  under  such  contentment  grows  big  and  fat  in  a 
very  short  time. 

I  know  of  no  more  picturesque  scene,  typically  Egyptian, 
and  representing  the  very  essence  of  rural  simplicity,  than 
that  of  a  huge  water  buffalo  browsing  in  clover  and  supporting 
(forgetful  of  his  presence)  a  half-nude  native  child  lying  full 
out  on  the  buffalo's  back,  on  guard  over  the  little  flock,  too 
contented  to  move  for  an  hour. 


PROSPECTS 

Stock-raising  countries  are  faced  with  the  fact  that  flocks 
and  herds  of  the  world  in  general  are  decreasing,  whereas  the 
demand  for  wool  and  meat  is  ever  growing.  Egypt  is  not  a 
big  meat-eating  country  ;  mutton  and  beef  are  rather  the 
foods  of  its  very  rich  folk.  The  number  of  sheep  annually 
slaughtered  at  the  Cairo  abattoirs  averages  about  270,000, 
and  this  figure  represents  82  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of 
all  animals  treated  there.  The  big  meat-eating  white  popula- 
tions of  Europe  are  at  Egypt's  doors,  and  the  great  quantities 
of  fodder  which  could  be  produced  on  the  irrigation  blocks  of 
this  wonderfully  fertile  Nile  valley  suggest  almost  convinc- 
ingly that  lamb-raising  and  mutton-raising  would  be  payable 
propositions.  Let  us  look  into  existing  conditions.  Apart 
from  the  smallness  of  the  recognised  living  area,  another  draw- 
back is  that  there  is  no  grazing  country  or  even  open  spaces 
adjacent  to  each  irrigation  block  where  sheep  could  be  yarded 
and  hand -fed.  It  is  all  or  nothing  here.  It  would  be  absolutely 
essential  to  tax  the  growing  capacity  of  the  land  to  its  utmost, 
and  to  plant  only  the  most  suitable  fodder  crops  in  season. 
This  would  mean  doing  away  altogether  with  the  cotton  crop 
and  the  sugar-cane  crops,  the  two  staple  crops  of  Egypt. 

Then,  again,  the  native  breeds  of  sheep  are  unsuitable  for 


EGYPT   AND   SOUTHERN  PALESTINE          289 

export.  It  is  very  improbable  then  that  sheep  will  ever  super- 
sede cotton  in  Egypt,  but  as  an  adjunct  to  good  agricultural 
methods  the  sheep  is  destined  to  remain. 

Sinai  will  ever  be  a  "no  man's  land."  Now  we  come  to  the 
open  downs  of  Southern  Palestine.  There  are,  perhaps,  many 
aspiring  Palestine  squatters  in  the  ranks  of  the  Australian 
Light  Horse. 

As  in  Egypt,  so  in  Palestine,  grain  is  more  in  demand  as  a 
commodity  of  trade  than  wool  and  meat.  Wheat  and  berley 
can  be  put  in  and  harvested  so  cheaply  ;.  there  is  an  abundance 
of  cheap  native  adult  and  child  labour,  so  that  the  poorest 
fields  show  a  profit.  Under  Turkish  maladministration  there 
was  no  freehold  land  other  than  house  sites  and  small  garden 
plots,  and  of  the  so-called  leasehold  land  the  lessee  had  no- 
security  of  tenure,  and  the  Government  could  walk  in  at  any 
time,  hence  we  see  no  improvements,  no  fences,  no  water 
schemes,  no  plantations  of  trees,  and  few  houses  other  than 
those  dilapidated  mud  huts  dotting  the  landscape.  Under 
new  British  land  laws  settlement  will  be  encouraged,  and  cereal 
growing  should  make  big  strides.  Sheep  will  continue  an  ad- 
junct to,  dry  farming,  but  under  better  conditions  the  breeds 
should  improve.  The  squatter  idea  will  be  cut  right  out ;  .  it 
is  unlikely  that  large  areas  will  be  held  solely  for  grazing. 
Holdings  will  be  fenced.  It  is  almost  certain  that  good  supplies 
of  artesian  and  sub -artesian  water  will  be  tapped  throughout 
the  country.  Proper  surveys  will  be  made,  and  new  roads  and 
railways  will  cross  the  land. 

For  the  identification  of  these  native  breeds  of  sheep  and  their 
local  geographical  distribution  I  am  indebted  to  G.  C.  Dud- 
geon, Esq.,  and  Mohammed  Askar  Effendi,  of  the  Ministry  of 
Agriculture. 


NIGERIA 

IT  is  now  some  three  years  since  the  immense  cattle  reserves 
existing  in  Nigeria  began  to  be  discovered  and  appreciated. 
This  appreciation  first  came  from  a  man  who  travelled  two  and 
a  half  years  in  the  cattle  regions  of  Nigeria  and  a  short  way  over 
the  borders  into  French,  and  what  were  previously  German, 
colonies.  This  was  Mr.  Speed,  a  man  of  wide  experience,  who 
not  only  carefully  collected  data  from  interviews  with  resi- 
dents, district  officials,  and  the  more  important  chiefs,  but  also 
put  his  observations  to  the  test  in  a  practical  way.  He  found 
that  there  were  not  less  than  five  million  head  of  cattle.  Be- 
sides Sir  Frederick  Lugard,  the  Governor -General,  Mr.  Speed 
saw  Mr.  Bonar  Law  and  Sir  A.  Steel -Mai  tland  on  this  matter, 
with  a  view  to  securing  adequate  reserves  of  land  to  allow  for 
collecting  and  fattening  prior  to  railing  to  Lagos.  This  was 
the  first  step  necessary  for  capital  to  be  put  up  to  secure  the 
erection  of  refrigerators,  etc. 

As  a  result  of  his  energies,  arrangements  were  made  between 
the  Nigerian  Company,  Miller  Brothers,  and  the  African  Asso- 
ciation to  finance  the  enterprise  as  occasion  arose,  and  Mr. 
Speed  went  to  Nigeria  again  to  carry  out  the  initial  steps. 
Unfortunately  he  died  soon  after  reaching  Nigeria.  Nothing 
has  been  done  since  the  removal  by  death  of  this  forceful  per- 
sonality, who  from  long  experience  in  Australia  and  Rhodesia, 
was  a  great  judge  of  cattle,  who  had,  moreover,  accumulated  a 
vast  deal  of  information  regarding  conditions  in  Nigeria,  and 
had  actually  experimented  on  a  fair  scale  in  fattening  cattle 
before  railing  them  to  Lagos.  This  man  could,  without  doubt, 
have  guided  into  existence  a  vast  enterprise,  had  he  lived.  An 
able  man  whom  Mr.  Speed  sent  out,  a  Canadian,  Mi.  Claude  P. 
Evans,  has  spent  over  a  year  covering  the  ground  previously 

290 


NIGERIA 


291 


traversed  by  Mr.  Speed,  and  fully  confirms  all  his  findings. 
Undoubtedly  there  is  in  the  country  a  great  natural  cattle 
reservoir,  and  in  view  of  the  growing  scarcity  of  meat,  it  ie  to 
be  hoped  that  steps  will  be  taken  by  British  enterprise  to 
foster  this  new  and  great  source  of  supply* 


GROUP  OF  STUD  HEREFORD  Cows  AT  THE  ROYAL  FARM,  WINDSOR,  ENGLAND 


ABYSSINIA,  SOMALILAND,  AND  THE 
CAMEROONS 

ABYSSINIA,  Somaliland,  and  the  Cameroons  are  all  countries 
with  more  or  less  native  stock,  which  are  all  open  to  improve- 
ment. On  the  high  and  healthy  plateaux  of  these  countries 
there  is  ample  feed  for  stock,  and  the  climate  is  excellent. 


CHINA 

As  new  countries  enter  the  frozen  meat  exporting  arena, 
and  China  amongst  them,  Hongkong,  which  has  long  been  a 
meat  producer,  may  be  expected  to  come  to  the  fore.  Last 
year,  for  example,  her  meat  product  exports  to  the  United 
States  of  America  were  valued  at  £28,000,  as  against  only 
£15,000  in  the  previous  year  ;  while  she  also  sent  meat  to  the 
Philippines  valued  at  £78,084,  as  against  £96,762  worth  in 
1916.  Frozen  beef  figured  among  her  exports  to  the  Philip- 
pines, although  this  ceased  with  the  rise  in  the  exchange  which 
later  eventuated.  With  the  return  of  exchange  to  a  normal 
level,  the  comparatively  low  price  of  meats  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  and  the  comparatively  low  cost  of  labour  will 
doubtless  make  it  practically  impossible  for  American  packers 
to  compete  with  local  interests  save  only  in  fine  and  special 
products. 

The  Hongkong  Dairy  Farm  Company,  Limited,  for  a  con- 
siderable period  has  been  experimenting  with  the  packing  of 
meats  of  different  sorts  for  use  in  outports  and  aboard  ship, 
including  the  tinning  of  beef  and  various  meat  products.  It 
is  now  announced  that  the  business  has  passed  the  experimental 
stage,  and  that  the  concern  is  arranging  to  can  meats  upon  a 
large  scale.  Already  the  company  has  secured  practically 
entire  control  of  the  trade  in  hams,  bacon,  and  similar  goods 
along  the  China  coast,  and  its  goods  have  been  successfully 
shipped  to  other  parts  of  the  world,  including  Great  Britain. 

It  has  been  found  by  repeated  experiments  that  conditions 
in  the  meat-packing  trade  in  this  field  are  vastly  different  in 
every  way  from  those  in  Europe  and  the  United  States.  The 
work  done  in  Hongkong  so  far  has  been  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  a  British  meat  expert  of  many  years'  experience,  and 
practically  everything  undertaken  on  the  basis  of  British  prac- 
tice has  been  a  failure  there  until  methods  meeting  conditions 

293 


294  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

in  Hongkong  were  worked  out.  Such  an  undertaking  as  the 
one  now  being  developed  is  likely  to  have  an  important  bearing 
upon  the  sale  of  tinned  American  meats  in  that  field. 

Refrigerated  steamers  are  shortly  to  be  put  on  the  route 
between  San  Francisco  and  Tientsin  to  carry  beef  from  the 
Shantung  and  Honan  provinces  of  China.  The  beef  from  these 
provinces  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  far  and  away  the  best  in 
China.  The  quality  of  this  Chinese  beef  compares,  according 
to  statements  made  by  the  veterinary  of  the  American  troops 
stationed  at  Tientsin,  very  favourably  with  the  Australian 
beef,  while  the  Russian  authorities  prefer  it  by  far  to  the  latter. 
The  United  States  troops  in  the  Philippines  are  being  supplied 
with  Chinese  beef. 

Recently  several  large  steamers  flying  the  French  flag 
landed  frozen  beef  at  Port  Said  and  Kantura  from  China.  It 
was  Manchurian  beef  of  very  excellent  quality. 


SIBERIA 

SIBERIA  was,  prior  to  the  war,  advancing  as  an  important 
factor  in  live-stock  production.  Petropavlovsk,  on  the  trans- 
Sibeiian  railway,  was  the  centre  of  an  immense  cattle-breeding 
district,  and  consignments  of  beef  have  been  made  from  that 
region.  The  number  of  cattle  there  rose  from  360,000  in  1903 
to  770,000  in  1909,  and  subsequently  the  advance  has  con- 
tinued. Mutton  will  also  be  largely  exported  when  the  new 
ways  of  communication  provide  means  of  tapping  the  great 
outlying  pasture  lands,  and  as  a  proof  of  their  importance  the 
official  returns  show  2,000,000  sheep  in  Kirghiz  Steppes,  and 
1,300,000  sheep  in  Akmolinsk,  both  areas  being  capable  of 
greater  development.  In  respect  to  such  progress,  however, 
the  trans-Siberian  railway,  whilst  traversing  a  rich  pastoral 
zone,  leaves  some  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  south,  said  to  be 
the  most  fertile  lands  of  Siberia.  The  cattle-breeding  industry 
there  awaits  the  impulse  of  railway  communication  and 
settled  government.  Pig-breeding  is  of  special  importance, 
thanks  to  cheap  and  abundant  food  supplied  by  dairies  in 
the  Kurgan  district,  whence  large  quantities  of  bacon  and 
pork  are  exported  annually  ;  but  the  inadequacy  of  railway 
transit  prevents,  for  the  present,  an  extension  of  that  trade. 

An  English  firm  has  erected  meat  works  at  Barawei.  Re- 
frigerators have  been  erected  at  Semipalatinsk,  and  works  are 
contemplated  at  Omsk.  Stock  and  game  are  abundant  and 
cheap,  and  the  climate  is  favourable  for  the  frozen  meat  trade, 
but  what  effect  the  last  four  years  have  had  remains  to  be  seen  ; 
however,  new  blood  may  make  things  progress  after  the  war 
is  over. 

The  vast  region  of  Asiatic  Russia  is  practically  a  new  country 
in  cattle-raising,  and  has  possibilities  too  numerous  to  be  esti- 
mated. From  1905  to  1911  the  number  of  cattle  increased 
from  5,600,000  to  14,700,000.  Russia  was  proposing  to  go  in 

295; 


296  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

very  largely  for  mechanical  refrigeration  directly  after  the  war. 
Numbers  of  cold  storage  buildings  were  to  be  erected  in  the 
principal  cattle-growing  districts,  and  receiving  stations  with 
cold  storage  facilities  were  to  be  installed. 

I  had  intended  visiting  this  country,  and  had  received  my 
passport  from  Earl  Grey  and  letters  from  the  Russian  Govern- 
ment, when  the  war  broke  out,  and  I  had  to  cancel  the  trip. 


THE  PACIFIC   ISLANDS 


THERE  are  several  large  areas  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  where  cattle- 
raising  has  been  for  years  a  successful  industry,  and  at  times 


ZEBU  BULL  FROM  SOUTHERN  INDIA  AND  NOW  IN  SOLOMON  ISLANDS 
ON  THE  MALAGTA  PLANTATION  j;k;tA  - 

of  scarcity  in  Australia  some  very  fine  cattle  have  been  mar- 
keted from  Fiji  and  New  Caledonia.  On  one  island  in  the 
Fiji  Group  there  has  been  for  many  years  a  very  large  herd  of 

297 


298  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Hereford  cattle,  and  every  year  stud  bulls  of  that  breed  have 
been  purchased  in  Australia. 

The  cattle  fatten  rapidly  on  the  "Sensitive"  plant,  and 
obtain  quick  maturity.  The  drawback  has  been  always  the  want 
of  markets  for  the  disposal  of  the  bullocks.  The  peninsula,  of 
about  100,000  acres,  with  rich  pasture,  on  the  French  island  of 
Tahiti,  in  the  Windward  Group,  ig  an  ideal  spot  for  cattle- 
raising,  and  should  be  able  easily  to  supply  with  beef  all  the 
ships  calling  there,  and  at  times  have  a  surplus  for  export. 
The  same  sensitive  plant  is  to  be  found  in  luxuriance  all  over 
the  island.  Again,  the  Sandwich  Group,  of  which  Honolulu  is 
the  main  port,  has  many  cattle  owners,  and  cattle  do  excellently 
there. 

New  Caledonia  is  a  country  of  great  possibilities.  As  a 
cat  tie -raising  colony  this  French  possession  has  a  great  future. 
There  are  already  three  meat  preserving  works  there,  two  of 
them  being  operated  by  Australian  capital. 


JAPAN 

THE  Japanese  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  is 
spending  30,000  yen  (about  £3000)  annually  on  the  rearing  of 
sheep.  This  commenced  in  the  financial  year  1916-17.  About 
200  head  of  sheep  have  been  purchased  from  England,  and 
others  from  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  kept  on  the 
pastures  at  Tsukisamushu,  Hokkaido. 

Should  these  renewed  experiments  in  sheep -raising  in  Japan 
prove  remunerative  the  authorities  will  take  steps  for  the  en- 
couragement of  this  branch  of  agriculture  among  farmers. 
The  Japanese  authorities  are  apparently  convinced  that  sheep - 
raising  in  Japan  will  turn  out  successful,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  much  depends  on  the  demand  for  mutton, 
which  is  not  an  accepted  article  of  food  in  Japan. 


301 


INNOVATION  "IN    MUTTON   STOWAGE 


33  PER  CENT  SAVING  IN  SPACE 

THE  accompanying  illustrations  show  how  mutton  is  dealt 
with  to  save  space.    The  carcase  is  treated  as  follows  :   The 


FIG.  1 

The  top  half  inserted 

sideways  in  the  lower, 

legs  down. 


FIG.  2 

Showing  where  the 
carcase,  is  cut. 


302 


INNOVATION  IN  MUTTON  STOWAGE          303 

mutton,  is  placed  on.  the  rail  and  chilled  for  18  to  24 
hours.  It  is  then  cut  into  two  pieces  across  the  loin,  the 
trunk  falling  to  the  floor  and  remaining  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion. The  hind  portion  is  placed  sideways  legs  down  into  the 
trunk,  and  then  frozen  in  the  upright  position.  After  freezing 
it  is  bagged  and  stored.  Mutton  treated  in  this  manner,  it  is 
estimated,  save  from  25  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  in  space,  and 
much  more  weight  can  be  got  in  a  given  space.  It  really  means 
increasing  the  capacity  of  steamers  and  cold  stores  to  a  similar 
large  extent. 


DIPPING  CATTLE 

THE  BENEFIT  AND  PRACTICABILITY  OF  DIPPING  CATTLE  ON 
LARGE  HOLDINGS 

MR.  E.  E.  D.  WHITE,  of  Bluff  Down,  North  Queensland,  writes 
me  as  follows  : — 

"  It  is  over  twenty  years  since  ticks  first  made  their  appear- 
ance in  the  Burdekin  waters,  when  we  lost  up  to  60  per  cent  of 
our  cattle  from  tick  fever.  Those  that  survived  and  their 
progeny  became  immune  from  the  fever,  and  the  immunity  re- 
mains with  the  cattle  on  all  country  that  continues  to  be 
badly  infected  with  ticks.  So  there  are  practically  no  losses 
from  fever  now.  But  the  extent  of  the  loss  we  sustain  annually 
through  tick  worry  is  not  generally  realised.  Although  most 
cattle  stations  now  have  dips,  with  very  few  exceptions,  no 
systematic  and  methodical  attempts  have  been  made  to  deal 
effectively  with  this  pest. 

"  After  ten  years'  trial  here  we  can  emphatically  say  that  in 
badly  infested  areas  no  investment  offers  such  a  reliable  and 
quick  return  as  money  spent  on  dips  and  dipping. 

"  To  gauge  in  some  degree  the  extent  of  the  loss  we  are  sus- 
taining, compare,  the  number  of  cattle  carried  on  these  runs 
before  and  after  the  coming  of  the  tick.  The  average  is 
now  about  half  that  of  former  times.  Convert  that  into  terms 
of  money  to  realise  the  loss  to  the  community  and  State. 

"It  is  impracticable  at  the  present  time  to  talk  of  eradica- 
tion, because  of  the  impossibility  of  getting  financial  aid  from 
the  State  and  the  high  cost  of  fencing.  But  the  Americans 
have  proved  it  possible  by  clearing  475,000  square  miles 
between  1906,  when  the  work  was  first  undertaken  there 
seriously,  up  to  March,  1916.  This  task  must  be  faced  by  us 
later,  and  because  the  conditions  we  will  have  to  work  under 

30 


DIPPING  CATTLE  305 

may  make  this  harder,  it  cannot  be  shelved  indefinitely  on  that 
score.  However,  what  concerns  us  vitally  in  the  meantime  is 
the  necessity  of  suppressing  the  ticks  and  doing  away  with 
much  of  the  poverty  and  mortality  to  stock  now  being  caused 
by  them.  To  undertake  this  work  each  one  making  the  attempt 
will  very  soon  have  his  own  experience  to  guide  him,  but  a  few 
suggestions  may  not  come  amiss  to  those  about  to  start. 

"  First,  put  in  a  good  wide  dip  6  ft.  across  at  water  line. 
This  reduces  all  risks  of  cattle  injuring  each  other  to  a  mini- 
mum, and  has  every  advantage  over  the  narrow  dip  when 
working  big  mobs  of  cattle.  With  a  good  incline  and  big  wide 
steps  on  the  walk  out,  the  weakest  cattle  can  be  dipped  with 
little  risk.  The  draining  yard  should  be  long,  and  from  8  ft. 
to  12  ft.  wide.  The  cattle  walk  to  the  far  end,  and  stand  quietly 
without  horning  and  knocking  each  other  about.  Dips  should 
be  arranged  in  such  positions  on  the  run  that  the  cattle  will 
not  be  driven  more  than  7  or  8  miles. 

"  The  number  of  cattle  that  can  be  worked  through  one  dip 
depends  entirely  on  the  carrying  capacity  of  any  particular 
area.  But  on  the  tableland,  so  far,  we  have  found  about  2000 
the  limit  without  having  to  drive  too  far.  How  often  cattle 
should  be  dipped  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  country,  for 
whereas  on  certain  runs  on  the  Upper  and  Lower  Burdekin  it 
is  found  necessary  to  dip  every  three  weeks  through  the  year, 
there  are  other  places  within  the  tick-infested  area  that  find 
an  occasional  dipping  suffices.  In  this  men  must  be  guided  by 
their  own  experience.  It  is  a  bad  policy  to  wait  until  the 
hair  is  coming  off  the  cattle.  Taking  this  tableland  country, 
we  find  that  after  a  good  burning  in  the  spring  and  rain  follow- 
ing in  November  and  December,  the  ticks  are  not  much  in 
evidence  until  the  following  April.  It  is  not  possible  to  dip 
regularly  during  the  first  three  months  owing  to  wet  weather, 
but  by  April  the  wet  season  is  usually  over.  This  is  the  time, 
and  from  this  on  to  July  one  can  get  good  results  from  dipping. 
This  is  the  very  best  time  to  work  stock.  The  grass  is  good, 
everything  strong,  and  the  weather  cool,  and  the  ticks  if  un- 
checked are  increasing  at  a  great  rate.  Don't  delay  until  the 
country  is  infested  ;  catch  them  early  while  the  cattle  are 
strong  and  healthy,  and  keep  the  ticks  off  and  the  condition  on, 


306  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

and  give  the  breeders  a  chance  to  weather  a  severe  winter  and 
dry  spring.  One  dipping  then  is  worth  more  than  four  in  August. 

"It  is  often  contended  that  the  losses  from  dipping  weak 
cattle  outweigh  any  gain.  Our  experience  is  quite  the  reverse. 
We  never  stopped  dipping  all  through  the  1915  drought,  and 
not  ten  head  stopped  in  the  dip.  Each  dipping  gave  them  a  new 
lease  of  life,  and  we  saved  most  of  our  breeders  by  it.  Others 
say  it  is  impossible  to  dip  bullocks  while  fattening.  This  is 
wrong.  It  not  only  quietens  them,  and  makes  them  better  to 
drove,  but  improves  their  condition  and  weight.  It  is  not  ad- 
visable to  put  cattle  on  the  road  immediately  after  dipping. 
They  should  have  at  least  five  days'  rest  in  paddocks.  Calves 
can  be  dipped  from  two  weeks  of  age  upwards,  but  the  strength 
of  the  dip  should  be  less  than  the  accepted  standard.  Although 
almost  as  much  benefit  can  be  derived  from  dipping  on  big 
unfenced  runs,  better  results  can  naturally  be  obtained  where 
they  are  subdivided  and  not  more  than  1000  to  1500  cattle 
carried  in  one  paddock.  This  allows  the  mustering  to  be  dona 
cleanly  and  systematically.  Where  eight  stockmen  used  to 
look  after  up  to  20,000  clean  cattle  formerly  with  fair  success, 
it  requires  treble  the  hands,  at  least,  to  work  and  dip  effec- 
tively that  number  now.  Six  men  can  attend  to  3000  or  4000 
head.  Bullocks  require  about  one-third  the  attention  that 
breeders  do.  Where  no  shoeing  of  horses  is  done  (which  in- 
volves a  big  addition  to  the  work  on  basalt  country)  this  esti- 
mate may  not  apply. 

"  Now  to  meet  this  big  increase  in  working  stock  under  these 
conditions — allow  we  save  half  the  cows  that  die  on  the  average 
annually  from  tick  worry.  This  mortality  on  the  tableland  is 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  total  females  branded  each  year.  The 
balance  of  20  per  cent  (over  the  actual  numbei  if  returns  were 
forthcoming)  are  those  cows  sold  and  killed  for  beef.  On  a 
holding  branding  2000  calves,  instead  of  turning  off  200  cows, 
which  very  few  do  in  that  proportion,  they  should  be  marketing 
at  least  500.  These  extra  300  cows  alone  at  present  values 
would  more  than  compensate  for  all  extra  expenditure  incurred. 
Then  take  into  consideration  the  holding  would  carry  50  per 
cent  more  stock  with  all  the  additional  returns  for  an  increased 
turn  off  and  better  class  of  bullocks." 


CATTLE  TICK  ERADICATION 

OF  course,  there  are  many  methods  of  tick  eradication,  used 
either  separately  or  conjointly,  the  more  important  and  more 
generally  known,  however,  being  dipping,  spraying,  inocula- 
tion, burning  the  pasture,  and  starvation  methods,  the  soiling 
method,  the  feedlot  method,  and  the  pasture  rotation  method* 
These  are  some  of  the  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  cattle- 
owners,  and  a  few  words  about  each  should  be  of  interest  and 
value. 

Before  dealing  with  the  remedies,  however,  the  dangers  of 
the  tick  evil  itself  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed.  About 
four  years  ago  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  (U.S.A.)  issued 
a  circular  to  stock-owners  with  a  view  to  securing  direct  evi- 
dence regarding  the  benefits  derived  from  the  tick  eradication 
work  carried  on  within  the  quarantine  area.  This  circular  took 
the  form  of  a  number  of  questions  which  are  given  herewith 
with  some  of  the  summarised  answers.  They  afford  most  im- 
pressive evidence,  not  only  of  enormous  losses  prevented,  but 
also  of  immense  gains  obtained  by  the  dipping  of  animals  for 
ridding  them  of  ticks. 

In  reply  to  the  question,  "  What  were  the  approximate 
annual  losses  of  cattle  from  tick  fever  in  your  county  from  1900 
to  1909  inclusive  ?  "  the  summarised  answer  was  :  "15-3  per 
cent,"  and  this  was  followed  by  the  query  :  "  What  has  been 
the  annual  loss  of  cattle  from  tick  fever  since  tick  eradication 
started  ?  "  The  answer — 1-3  per  cent — compared  with  the  15-3 
per  cent  in  reply  to  the  first  question,  shows  that  tick  eradica- 
tion work  resulted  in  the  losses  being  reduced  almost  to  vanish- 
ing point.  The  next  two  questions  brought  forth  the  informa- 
tion that  whereas  from  1900  to  1909  inclusive  the  average 
value  of  three-year-old  steers  was  16-15  dollars  (67s.  3d.),  in 
1912,  i.e.  between  two  and  three  years  after  the  commence- 

307 


308  DIPPING   CATTLE 

• 

ment  of  tick  eradication  work,  it  amounted  to  25-28  dollars 
(105s.  4d.).  In  comparing  these  two  amounts,  however,  allow- 
ance has  to  be  made  for  the  general  advance  in  the  price  of 
cattle,  but  even  when  this  is  done,  the  price  shows  an  appre- 
ciation of  40  per  cent,  which  can  be  properly  credited  to  the 
absence  of  the  tick. 

Two  more  questions  and  their  replies  may  be  quoted  : — "  Is 


Ox  SKIN,  SHOWING  GROSS  TICK  INFESTATION 

there  any  difference  in  the  average  weight  of  the  cattle  now  and 
before  tick  eradication  was  started  ?  How  much  ?  "  Answer  : 
'  Yes.  Average  increase  22  per  cent.  Average  weight  in- 
crease, 116  Ibs."  Taking  the  value  of  the  animals  at  Ifd.  per 
Ib.  (the  average  for  three-year-old  steers  in  U.S.A.),  the  average 
gain  thus  works  out  at  about  16s.  8d.  per  head.  Finally,  the 
reply  to  the  question  :  "Is  there  any  improvement  in  the 
grades  of  cattle  in  your  country  since  the  work  of  tick  eradica- 
tion was  started  ?  "  was  practically  a  unanimous  affirmative. 


CATTLE  TICK  ERADICATION  309 

These  reports  indicate  very  striking  results,  and  the  comment  of 
a  correspondent  of  the  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture  is  worth 
quoting  :  "  With  the  prospect  of  tick  eradication,  the  raising 
of  cattle  is  springing  into  life.  In  years  gone  by,  with  the  tick 
depopulating  bunches  of  cattle,  there  was  no  money  to  be  made 
in  raising  cattle.  With  the  present  outlook,  men  are  fencing 
their  lands,  and  there  is  sharp  competition  for  every  heifer  or 
cow  that  can  be  bought.  If  our  authorities  will  pass  a  tick 
law,  and  see  that  it  is  rigidly  enforced,  we  can  clear  out  the 
ticks  in  twelve  months." 

To  return  to  the  remedies,  dipping  is  undoubtedly  the  best 
method  of  eradication,  provided  an  efficient  dip  be  used. 

Dr.  Theiler  (South  Africa)  has  stated  that  the  eradication  of 
ticks  by  starvation  "  must  undoubtedly  lead  to  success  in  every 
case  where  we  are  able  to  keep  the  place,  for  a  sufficient  length 
of  time,  free  from  such  animals  as  act  as  hosts,"  and  that  a 
period  of  fourteen  months  would  be  a  safe  one  to  adopt  in 
attempting  the  eradication  of  the  red,  brown,  and  Bont  ticks 
in  South  Africa  by  the  starvation  method.  Careful  experi- 
ments made  at  Gonubie  Park,  Cape  Province,  showed,  however, 
that  a  fenced -in  area  of  160  acres,  from  which  all  stock  had  been 
excluded  for  twenty-one  months,  at  the  end  of  that  period  was 
still  infested  with  a  considerable  number  of  ticks,  and  no  doubt 
would  have  remained  so  indefinitely,  owing  to  the  insufficient 
barrier  presented  to  the  ticks  by  the  fencing,  and  to  the  impos- 
sibility of  excluding  wild  game.  The  conclusions  drawn  from 
these  experiments,  which  included  also  grass  burning,  are  that 
the  starvation  method  reduces  the  number  of  ticks,  and  if  com- 
bined with  burning,  still  further  reduces  it,  but  that  the  method 
fails  to  eradicate  the  ticks,  and  is  inferior  to  a  System  of  dipping 
at  regular  intervals  with  an  efficient  dip.  Burning  doubtless 
destroys  a  number  of  ticks  if  it  is  done  when  they  are  on  the 
top  of  the  grass,  but  pasturage  is  usually  such  a  scarce  and 
valuable  commodity  in  this  country  that  burning  it  is  rather 
too  drastic  a  remedy.  Also  in  regard  to  the  starvation  method 
it  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  practical  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  enclosing  large  areas  so  as  to  prevent  ground  game 
or  birds  gaining  access  to  it,  and  bringing  in  ticks,  besides 
acting  as  hosts  to  the  ticks  already  on  the  ground. 


310 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


With  dipping  and  starvation  combined,  the  ticks  which  get 
on  the  cattle  are  being  killed  off,  and  simultaneously  those  ticks 
which  do  not  find  a  host  are  dying  of  starvation.  Also,  if  a 
suitable  dip  be  chosen,  the  ticks  which  get  on  immediately  after 
dipping  die.  In  other  words,  dipping  means  quick  destruction 
of  a  certain  proportion  of  the  licks,  combined  with  the  slower 
process  of  starvation  of  the  remainder. 


OOOBLE   FENCE 


c 


TICK-FREE 
CULTIVATED 

GROUND 


CROPPED 
FIELD 


=J. 


CROPPED 
FIELD 


CROPPED 

FIELD 


FORAGE 

FIELD 


TICK-FREE 

CULTIVATED 

GROUND 


PASTURE 


In  the  United  States,  where  Texas  fever,  or  red  water,  is  the 
only  tick-borne  cattle  disease  that  troubles  the  stock  farmer, 
the  starvation  method  is  said  to  have  been  practised  with 
success. 

The  Soiling  Method. — This  is  based  upon  the  following  data  : 
The  time  required  for  the  female  tick  to  lay  eggs  and  the  latter 
to  hatch — i.e.  the  time  spent  on  the  ground — is  rarely  less  than 
three  weeks,  and  the  time  required  by  the  seed  ticks  to  mature 
on  the  cattle  is  fromjbwenty  to  forty -five  days. 


CATTLE  TICK  ERADICATION  311 

When  the  tick-infested  cattle  are  to  be  cleaned  it  is  recom- 
mended that  they  be  kept  in  a  small  tick-free  enclosure  for 
three  weeks,  when  many  of  the  ticks  will  have  fallen  off.  They 
should  then  be  removed  to  another  similar  enclosure  for  another 
three  weeks.  After  this,  they  should  be  examined,  and,  if 
found  free  from  ticks,  they  may  be  put  on  non-infested  pasture 
at  once.  If,  however,  any  ticks  are  observed,  the  cattle  should 
be  placed  in  a  third  enclosure  for  another  two  weeks. 

By  this  time  the  youngest  ticks  that  were  on  the  cattle  at 
the  start  will  have  matured  and  dropped  off,  and.  as  the 
animals  are  removed  from  each  pen  before  they  could  have 
become  reinfested  by  the  seed  ticks  hatched  from  the  eggs  of 
the  females  that  fell  off.  they  are  tick-free.  It  is  clear  that  the 
enclosures  cannot  be  used  repeatedly  for  the  purpose  without 
thoroughly  cleansing  them  from  ticks.  It  should  be  noted  that 
this  method,  as  described,  is  only  suitable  for  dealing  with  the 
tick  which  carries  the  red  water  organism,  which  requires  to 
pass  through  the  egg  stage  in  its  progress  from  host  to  host. 

The  Feed -lot  Method. — This  method  is  based  upon  the  same 
considerations  in  regard  to  the  life-history  of  the  tick  as  the 
last.  To  put  it  into  practice,  a  field  on  which  forage  has  been 
sown  is  taken,  and  within  it  three  separate  enclosures  or  "  feed- 
lots  "  are  made,  as  shown  in  the  diagram.  The  tick -infested 
cattle  are  removed  from  their  customary  pasture,  and  placed 
in  one  of  these  enclosures  for  twenty  days,  then  transferred  to 
the  next  for  another  twenty  days,  when,  in  most  cases,  they 
will  be  free  of  ticks,  and  can  be  turned  into  the  forage  field.  If, 
however,  ticks  are  still  present,  the  cattle  are  placed  in  the 
third  enclosure  for  fifteen  days  more,  before  being  passed  into 
the  forage  field. 

All  ticks  which  were  on  the  animals  when  placed  in  the  feed- 
lots  will,  by  this  time,  thave  dropped  off,  and  the  feed -lots  are 
at  once  ploughed,  their  edges  sprayed  with  Beaumont  oil  or 
other  tick-destroying  agent,  and  the  soil  cultivated.  The  cattle 
are  kept  on  the  forage  till  some  five  months  after  they  were 
drawn  from  the  pasture,  by  which  time  the  latter  has  lost  its 
ticks  by  starvation,  and  the  cattle  may  then  be  returned  to  it. 
It  is  essential  that  the  feed-lot*  be  enclosed  by  a  fencs,  board- 
tight  along  the  ground,  to  keep  the  ticks  out  of  the  forage  field, 


312  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

and  it  is  recommended  that  a  furrow  be  thrown  up  on  both 
sides  of  the  fence  for  the  same  purpose.  The  feed -lot  s  should  be 
situated  at  the  boundary  of  the  field,  so  that  the  cattle  may  pass 
from  one  to  the  other  over  the  adjoining  tick-free  ground. 

The  Pasture  Rotation  Method. — The  infected  pasture  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  double  line  of  fencing  10  ft.  apart. 
All  tick -infested  animals  are  excluded  from  the  first  half  of  the 
pasture,  from  1st  June  to  10th  November,  thereby  rendering  it 
tick-free.  The  tick-infested  cattle  are  placed  on  the  second 
half,  where  they  are  kept  from  1st  June  to  10th  September. 
They  are  then  partly  cleaned  of  ticks  by  putting  them  in  a 
cultivated  field,  cleared  of  its  crop,  for  twenty  days.  The  partly 
cleaned  cattle  are  then  removed  to  a  second  cultivated  field, 
where  the  remaining  ticks  will  fall  off  within  twenty  days,  but 
if  any  remain  they  are  transferred  to  a  third  field  for  a  like 
period.  On  10th  November  the  clean  cattle  are  returned  to 
the  first  half  of  the  pasture,  which  by  this  time  has  become 
free  from  ticks.  Here  they  are  kept  till  May,  by  which  time  the 
ticks  in  the  second  half  have  perished.  The  final  result  is  that 
both  pasture  and  cattle  are  free  from  ticks. 

A  single  female  tick  may  lay  as  many  as  5000  eggs,  and  her 
progeny  may,  in  the  course  of  seven  months,  come  to  number 
6,750,000,000  individuals.  It  has  been  calculated  that  one 
beast  may,  as  a  result  of  tick  infestation,  lose  as  much  as  500 
Ibs.  of  blood  in  a  season.  This  is  quite  credible  when  the  fact 
is  borne  in  mind  that  a  female  tick,  fully  gorged  with  blood, 
weighs  thirty  times  more  than  before  it  began  to  engorge.  No 
less  than  28  Ibs.  of  ticks  were  taken  from  a  horse  which  died 
from  anaemia  resulting  from  gross  tick  infestation.  A  beast, 
badly  infested,  weighed  730  Ibs.  It  was  freed  from  ticks  by 
dipping,  and  two  months  later — its  food  and  general  treatment 
remaining  the  same  as  before  dipping — it  had  gained  285  Ibs. 
Newly  hatched  ticks  can  live  as  long  as  eight  months  without 
food,  even  during  the  colder  season.  In  one  experiment,  cows 
badly  infested  with  ticks  produced  42J  per  cent  Jess  milk  than 
cows  kept  free  from  ticks. 

Finally,  the  total  annual  loss  sustained  as  a  result  of  ticks 
in  the  United  States  is  set  down  in  the  official  year  book  as 
100,000,000  dollars,  or  nearly  £21,000,000, 


DEHORNING  CATTLE 

"!N  the  Argentine  very  large  numbers  of  the  cattle  bred  for 
slaughter  are  dehorned  in  their  youth,  with  a  view,  of  course, 
of  saving  injury  when  transporting  takes  place  from  ranch  to 
freezer.  In  Australia!  this  has  not  been  done,  consequently 
considerable  losses  have  been  attributed  to  injury  by  the  horns 
of  animals  which  are  driven  or  transported  to  the  freezer. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  polled  or  dehorned  cattle  can  be 
managed  and  fattened  with  gieater  facility  than  horned 
animals,  and  that,  where  a  consignment  consists  solely  of  horn- 
less cattle,  the  animals  can  be  conveyed  by  sea  or  land  with 
less  danger  of  sustaining  injury  whilst  in  transit.  The  opinion 
of  salesman  and  feeders  of  experience  in  the  cattle  trade  is  to 
the  effect  that  steers  for  export,  when  horned,  require  more 
space  in  railway  wagons,  on  board  ships  and  in  the  market- 
place, that  they  receive  more  injury  in  transit,  and  that  they 
are  worth  from  10 /-  to  15/-  per  head  less  than  hornless  cattle. 

"The  practice  of  dehorning  cattle  by  sawing  off  or  other- 
wise entirely  removing  the  horns  after  they  are  partly  or  fully 
grown  appears  to  inflict  great  pain  upon  the  animals,  and  may 
even  be  the  cause  of  death.  A  method  of  preventing  the  growth 
of  the  horns  is  by  the  application  of  caustic  potash  to  the  horn 
buds  of  young  calves.  If  performed  in  the  manner  set  out 
below,  and  with  proper  regard  to  the  precautions  which  follow, 
the  operation  is  comparatively  painless,  and  can  be  done 
quickly  and  with  ease  : — 

"  Clip  the  hair  from  the  top  of  the  horn  when  the  calf  is 
from  two  to  five  days  old.  Slightly  moisten  the  end  of  a  slick 
of  caustic  potash  with  water  (or  moisten  the  top  of  the  horn 
bud),  and  rub  the  tip  of  each  horn  firmly  with  the  potash  for 
about  a  quarter  of  a,  minute,  or  until  a  slight  impression  has 
been  made  on  the  centre  of  the  horn.  The  horn  should  be 

313 


314  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

treated  in  this  way  from  two  to  four  times  at  intervals  of  five 
minutes. 

"  If  during  the  interval  of  five  minutes  after  one  or  more 
applications  a  little  blood  appears  in  the  centre  of  the  horn,  it 
will  then  only  be  necessary  to  give  another  very  slight  rubbing 
with  the  potash. 

"  The  following  directions  should  be  carefully  observed  : — 

"1.  The  operation  is  best  performed  when  the  calf  is  under 
five  days  old,  and  should  not  be  attempted  after  the  ninth  day. 

"  2.  Caustic  potash  can  be  obtained  from  any  chemist  in  the 
form  of  a  white  stick.  When  not  in  use,  it  should  be  kept  in 
a  stoppered  glass  bottle  in  a  dry  place,  as  it  rapidly  deteriorates 
when  exposed  to  the  air. 

"  3.  One  man  should  hold  the  calf  while  an  assistant  uses 
the  caustic. 

"4.  A  piece  of  tinfoil  or  brown  paper  should  be  rolled  round 
the  end  of  the  stick  of  caustic  potash  which  is  held  by  the 
fingers,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  hand  of  the  operator. 

"  5.  The  stick  should  not  be  moistened  too  much,  or  the 
caustic  may  spread  to  the  skin  around  the  horn  and  destroy 
the  flesh.  For  the  same  reason  the  calf  should  be  kept  from 
getting  wet  for  some  days  after  the  operation. 

"  6.  Care  should  be  taken  to  rub  on  the  centre  of  the  horn, 
and  not  round  the  side  of  it."  (Weddel  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  to  The 
Transvaal  Landowners'  Association.) 


LIVE  AND   DRESSED   WEIGHTS 

/• 

THE  National  Provisioner,  in  an  interesting  article,  says  : — 

"  The  census  of  the  United  States  has  provided  average  live 
and  dressed  weights  of  meat  animals  killed  in  the  wholesale 
slaughtering  and  meat-packing  industry,  and  these  averages, 
of  course,  are  derived  from  an  immense  number  of  animals. 
Information  is  provided  for  1899,  1904,  and  1909. 

'  The  average  live  weight  of  beeves,  not  including  calves, 
was  1069  Ibs.  in  1899,  1047  Ibs.  in  1904,  and  1019  Ibs.  in  1909. 
This  declining  average  may  be  due  to  the  tendency  to  slaughter 
steers  at  younger  ages  in  recent  years  than  formerly. 

'  The  dressed  weight  of  beeves  also  declined,  the  average 
being  583  Ibs.  for  1899,  569  Ibs.  for  1904,  and  543  Ibs.  for  1909. 

''  With  diminishing  live  weight  the  percentage  represented 
by  the  dressed  weight  has  declined,  the  percentage  for  1899 
was  54-5,  for  1904  it  was  54-3,  and  for  1909  it  was  53-3  per  cent. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  the  live  and  dressed  weights  of  calves 
have  increased.  For  the  three  years  in  order  the  average  live 
weight  was  141,  167,  and  168  Ibs.,  and  the  average  dressed 
weight  was  90,  103,  and  105  Ibs.  But  the  dressed  weight  as  a 
percentage  of  live  weight  has  declined  since  1899.  The  ratios 
for  the  three  years  are  63-8,  61-7,  and  62-5  per  cent  respectively. 

"  Sheep  and  lambs  are  combined  in  the  census  statement, 
and  their  average  live  weight  for  the  three  years  was  84,  86,  and 
81  Ibs.,  while  their  average  dressed  weight  was  43,  43,  and  41 
Ibs.,  constituting  a  fraction  of  live  weight  represented  by  51-2, 
50,  and  50-6  per  cent  respectively. 

"  In  the  export  frozen  and  chilled  beef  trade  of  Argentina 
the  average  weights  of  two  forequarters  and  two  hindquarters 
are  regarded  as  making  the  dressed  weight  of  a  beef  animal. 
Since  these  are  mostly  well -grown  steers,  the  averages  are  high 
compared  with  the  average  dressed  weight  of  all  cattle  slaugh- 

315 


316  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

tered  in  the  wholesale  slaughtering  industry.  The  Argentine 
export  dressed  weights  of  beef  animals  increased  from  689  Ibs. 
in  1906  to  767  Ibs.  in  1913. 

"  A  slaughter  record  in  Queensland  (Australia)  provides 
average  dressed  weights  of  beef  animals  from  1903  to  1912 
which  ranged  from  577  to  662  Ibs.  Since  1904  the  averages 
ha\e,  on  the  whole,  declined. 

"  The  record  for  Uruguay  presents  a  quite  uniform  series  of 
average  dressed  weights  of  beef  cattle  from  1905  to  1910  ;  they 
ranged  from  558  Ibs.  to  580  Ibs. 

"  The  dressed  weight  of  export  sheep  and  lambs  in  Argentina 
is  considerably  above  the  average  in  wholesale  slaughtering- 
houses  in  the  United  States.  The  Argentine  average  ranged 
from  53  to  65  Ibs.  from  1906  to  1913.  The  cold  storage  mutton 
and  lamb  for  supplying  the  Buenos  Aires  city  market  had  a 
dressed  weight  that  ranged  from  37  to  45  Ibs.  from  1906  to 
1912." 


VENISON 

THERE  seems  no  reason  why  much  wider  use  should  not  be 
made  of  venison.  It  is  an  old  trade,  and  before  the  war  the 
United  States  was  a  very  large  customer  of  Great  Britain  in 
this  respect.  The  Americanos  themselves  have  evidently  been 
looking  round  in  other  directions  for  a  kindred  supply,  and  a 
State  authority  predicts  that  the  day  will  soon  come  when 
reindeer  meat  will  be  as  common  as  beef  or  mutton  in  the 
American  markets,  as  the  result  of  an  investigation  into  con- 
ditions in  Alaska.  The  meat  will  come  from  Alaska.  It  will 
form  the  basis  of  a  large  packing  industry,  and  will  be  shipped 
in  cold  storage  steamers  and  trains  to  every  town  in  the  United 
States.  There  were  in  1916  75,000  to  100,000  reindeer  in  that 
territory.  They  are  being  handled  under  Government  regula- 
tions, and  are  doubling  in  number  every  two  or  three  years. 
At  the  present  rate  of  increase  there  should  be  1,000,000  in 
1925.  By  1931  the  number  should  have  increased  to  more 
than  3,000,000,  and  five  years  later  it  might  be  almost 
13,000,000.  That  will  be  only  seventeen  years  from  now,  and 
after  that  the  increase  should  be  such  that  reindeer  meat  will 
probably  be  as  cheap  as  any  other  in  the  American  markets. 


A  STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  BODY  WEIGHTS, 
GAINS  AND  MEASUREMENTS  OF  STEERS 
DURING  THE  FATTENING  PERIOD 

(In.  The  United,  States  Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  1917.) 

DURING  the  winter  months  of  1914-1915,  1915-1916,  and  1916- 
1917,  a  series  of  body  measurements  of  steers  were  made  at 
the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  at  the  beginning  and 
close  of  feeding  experiments,  for  three  consecutive  years,  with 
the  purpose  of  determining  the  average  body  measurements  of 
two-year-old  steers  at  the  beginning  and  close  of  the  fattening 
period  and  the  relationship  of  other  definite  body  measure- 
ments to  each  other,  and  to  note  those  measurements  that 
could  be  used  in  selection  as  a  means  of  reducing  the  experi- 
mental error  in  feeding  experiments  and  a  study  of  variation 
in  the  measurements  themselves.  Another  object  was  to  find 
out  the  correlation  of  gains  to  initial  body  measurements  and 
to  changes  in  body  dimensions. 

All  measurements  taken  on  a  total  of  216  animals  divided 
into  seven  lots  each  year  are  indicated  in  Table  I.  These  steers 
were  relatively  uniform  as  feeders,  varying  in  market  grades 
from  "  fair  "  to  "  choice,"  the  majority  being  "  good  "  feeders  ; 
92  were  Hereford  grades,  84  Shorthorn  grades,.  18  Aberdeen 
Angus  grades,  7  Shorthorn  x  Hereford  crosses,  3  Shorthorn  X 
Aberdeen-Angus  crosses,  and  3  Hereford  x  Aberdeen-Angus 
crosses.  In  no  case  did  a  steer  fail  to  show  some  infusion  of 
improved  beef  blood.  The  average  initial  weight  of  the  216 
steers  was  900  pounds,  with  700  and  1300  pounds  as  ex- 
tremes. The  steers  were  as  uniform  in  quality,  weight,  and 
condition  as  would  ordinarily  be  obtained  for  feeding  purposes. 
Each  year  60  steers  were  divided  into  five  lots  of  12  each, 
selected  with  as  much  care  for  uniformity  of  weight,  breeding, 
condition,  and  quality  as  possible.  The  feeding  of  these  various 

318 


STATISTICAL   STUDY   OF   BODY  WEIGHTS   319 

lots  was  done  with  rations  affording  very  nearly  the  same 
opportunity  for  gains  in  live  weight  and  condition  of  flesh  for 
marketing. 

Table  I  includes  all  records  for  the  three  ye"ars,  while  the 
correlation  tables  include  the  data  during  the  first  two  years. 
All  body  measurements  except  circumferences  were  made  with 
the  steel  caliper  ;  all  circumferences  were  measured  with  a 
steel  tape  graduated  in  inches.  The  probability  of  error  in 
measurements  is  a  factor  not  considered,  thus  necessitating  a 
large  number  of  measurements  to  reduce  the  probable  error. 

TABLE  I. — Average  initial  and  final  measurements  of  two-year- 
old  steers  fattened  for  market  during  a  140 -day  feeding  period. 


Measurement 

Initial  measurement. 

Final  measurement. 

Difference 
in 

measure- 
ments 

Percentage 
incfe»ose 

Number 
of  steers 

Average 

Number 
of  steers 

Average 

Weight 

216 

Founds 
QOO.  112 

216 

Pounds 
1.188.398 

Pounds 
288  286 

•J2  O2 

Inches 

Inches 

Inches 

O*'v 

Width  of  head     

214 

8.832 

216 

9.II2 

0.280 

3.16 

Lfn^th  of  lierui       

214 

iq  A  1  1 

216 

19.892 

0.481 

2.48 

Length  of  neck       

**  x  *T 

KM 

A  V*'r  A 
]Q    l6^ 

72 

20.990 

•T 

1.827 

9  ^ 

Width  of  shoulders        .... 

o 

214 

V  •  *  w  J 

16.4  12 

/  ~ 
21  *> 

l8  459 

.    *w~  / 

2  O47 

'•  J  J 

12.42 

Width  of  front  dunk  ..'.... 

*  *  *f 

214 

16.378 

j 

216 

Wlif  J  J 

18.353 

*t«W«f  J 

1,980 

4».<f4* 

12.08 

Width  of  pnunch        

214. 

23.612 

216 

26.IOI 

2.489 

10.54 

Width  of  rear  flank   

T 
154 

19.527 

216 

22.744 

3.217 

16.42 

"Width  of  loin      

200 

13.984 

216 

15.958 

1.974 

14.11 

" 

Width  of  hips      

*  j 

202 

17.662 

216 

19.254 

1.592 

9.01 

Width  Of  thurls  (Hip    joint)    .    . 

209 

17.204 

215 

18.533 

1.329 

7.72 

Buttock  to  hip    .'    

214 

18.366 

216 

19.622 

1.256 

6.83 

Depthtof  chest    

154 

26.730 

215 

27.789 

1.059 

3.96 

Shoulder  point  to  ground     .   .    . 

214 

33-°33 

216 

34-311 

1.278 

3.86 

Chest  to  ground  

214 

22.876 

216 

24.013 

0.237 

1.03 

Hind  flank  to  ground    

214 

29.128 

216 

30.202 

1.074 

3.68 

Hock  to  ground  .   .    .    .    .    .    .    . 

142 

20.795 

204 

20.914 

0.119 

0.57 

Withers  to  ground  

214 

49.224 

216 

53.870 

4.646 

9.43 

Hips  to  ground   •        • 

202 

50-855 

214 

52.4II 

1.556 

3.05 

Shoulder  to  buttock  

2I4 

53.763 

216 

57.988 

4-225 

1.85 

Circumference  of  chest  

214 

73.014 

216 

77.694 

4.680 

6.40 

Circumference  of  paunch  . 

214 

80.256 

216 

88.301 

8.045 

10.02 

Circumference  of  hind  flank     .    . 

2I4 

7T-364 

216 

78.685 

7.321 

10.25 

Circumference  of  muzzle  .... 

I4I 

17.198 

143 

17.930 

0.832 

4.83 

320  THE   WORLD'S  MEAT   FUTURE 

These  216  steers  gained  at  the  rate  of  2-058  pounds  daily 
for  140  days. 

The  following  average  initial  measurements  show  a  marked 
similarity  :  The  length  of  head,  length  of  neck,  and  width  of 
rear  flank,  which  vary  from  19-163  to  19-527  inches  ;  the  width 
of  shoulder  and  front  flank  differ  by  only  0-034  inch  ;  the  hips 
and  thurJs  (hip  joint)  in  width  are  17-682  inches  and  17-204 
inches,  respectively  ;  and  circumference  of  the  body  in  the 
region  of  the  chest  and  hind  flank  are  73-014  and  71-364  inches 
respectively.  The  height  at  the  withers  of  a  "  feeder  "  steer  is 
1  -631  less  than  the  height  at  the  hips.  The  length  of  body  from 
shoulder  point  to  buttock  is  only  2-908  inches  greater  than  the 
greatest  height  at  the  hips. 

The  average  measurements  at  the  conclusion  of  the  fatten- 
ing period  show  similarity  as  follows  :  The  length  of  head, 
width  of  hips,  and  distance  of  buttock  from  hips  varying 
within  0-638  inch  of  each  other  ;  the  width  of  shoulder,  front 
flank,  and  thurls  are  almost  identical ;  and  the  circumference 
of  the  chest  and  hind  flank  are  more  alike  than  their  initial 
measurements. 

The  height  hag  increased  more  at  the  withers  than  at  the 
hips  ;  thus  a  two-year-old  steer  changes  his  greatest  height 
from  the  hips  to  the  withers  while  receiving  market  conditions. 
In  circumference  the  increase  was  greater  for  the  hind  flank 
than  for  the  chest ;  thus  the  greater  circumference  of  the  chest 
at  the  initial  measurement  becomes  less  than  the  circumference 
of  the  hind  flank  in  the  finished  steer.  In  fattening,  the  greatest 
width  at  paunch  and  the  greatest  depth  of  body  at  the  chest 
become  more  nearly  alike,  as  shown  by  a  difference  of  3-118 
inches  at  the  initial  measurement  and  1-688  at  the  concluding 
measurement. 

In  all  cases  the  difference  between  the  initial  measurement 
and  the  final  measurement  shows  an  increase  in  dimensions 
due  to  the  depositions  of  fat,  muscular  development,  and 
growth.  The  regions  of  the  body  covered  by  the  greatest 
amount  of  muscular  development  show  greater  increased 
dimensions  than  those  having  less  muscular  covering. 

In  the  regions  where  the  growth  would  show  the  greater 
relative  influence  the  least  changes  take  place,  as  shown  in  the 


STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF  BODY  WEIGHTS    321 

width  of  head,  length  of  head,  distance  from  chest  to  ground 
and  hock  to  ground.  The  greatest  increase  in  width  took  place 
in  the -hind  flank  rather  than  in  the  paunch,  where  it  would 
seem  natural  to  have  the  greatest  increase  because  of  feed 
capacity  and  condition.  The  thick  layer  of  flesh  and  fat  de- 
posits in  the  region  of  the  hind  flank,  together  with  the  disten- 
sion of  this  region  of  the  body  in  a  fattened  steer,  are  respon- 
sible for  the  greater  width  in  this  part  of  the  body.  The  width 
of  loin,  hips,  thurls,  shoulders,  and  front  flank  shows 
changes  in  dimensions  caused  mainly  by  increased  condition 
of  flesh. 

The  increase  in  height  at  the  withers  of  4-646  inches  is  not 
all  due  to  growth  alone,  a  larger  portion  of  this  increase  being 
caused  by  the  flesh  covering  over  the  withers  and  the  deposi- 
tion of  fat  in  the  muscular  tissues  of  the  shoulder  region.  The 
fat  deposits  and  muscular  development  cause  the  shoulder- 
blade  to  be  held  more  rigidly  ;  thus  the  body  in  the  chest 
region  rises  between  the  shoulder-blade^,  as  indicated  by  the 
greater  distance  between  the  withers  and  the  upper  border  of 
the  shoulder-blade.  The  greatest  change  in  the  body  measure- 
ments was  the  circumference  of  the  paunch.  This,  however, 
was  proportionately  less  than  the  increase  of  7-321  inches  in 
circumference  of  the  hind  flank.  The  fact  that  the  distance  of 
chest  to  ground  and  hind  flank  to  ground  did  not  show  greater 
difference  was  due  to  lowering  of  the  flank  by  deposition  of  fat 
in  that  region  and  the  fat  covering  over  the  region  of  the  chest. 
The  region  of  the  body  possessing  the  most  valuable  eatable 
parts  on  the  whole  are  affected  most  in  the  fattening 
process. 

CORRELATION  TABLES. — The  following  table  (p.  322)  is 
here  presented  as  illustration  of  the  methods  used  in  obtaining 
the  facts  presented  in  Tables  III  and  IV  : — 


322 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


TABLE  II. — Correlation  of  average  daily  gain  of  steers  during  a 
feeding  period  of  120  to  140  days,  and  the  weight  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  feeding  period. 


Correlatim 


Correlation 
coefficient 


Correlating 


Correlation 
coefficient 


Gain  whith  initial  live  weight 

Gain  with  increase  in  circum- 
ference of  chest 

Gain  with  initial  width  of  real- 
flank  

Gain  with  initial  circumference 
of  rear  flank 

Gain  with  initial  height  of 
point  of  shoulder 

Gain  with  .initial  height  of 
rear  flattki  .  . ' 

Gain  with  initial  length  of  hip 
to  buttock 

Gain  with  initial  width  of  loin 

Gain  with  initial  circumfer- 
ence of  chest 

Gain  with  initial  depth  of  chest 

Gain  with  initial  width  of  fore 
flank 

Gain  with  initial  distance  of 
chest  to  ground 

Gain  with  initial  width  of 
thurls , 


0.036  ±  0.036 

.460  ±  .044 

.079  ±  .083 

.221    ±  .053 

.061    T  .056 

•053  ±  -°55 

•271  ±  -053 

.108  ±  .085 

•238  ±  .053 

.130  ±  .046 

.164  ±  .054 

.077  ±  .056 

.224  ±  .054 


Gainwith initial  length  of  head 

Gain  with  initial  length  from 
point  of  shoulder  to  buttock 

Gain  with  increase  in  circum- 
ference of  paunch  .  .  . 

Gain  with  initial  heigth  of  wi- 
thers   

Gain  with  initial  width  of 
shoulders 

Gain  with  initial  circumference 
of  paunch  

Gain  with  increase  in  circum- 
ference of  rear  flank  .  .  . 

Width  of  thurls  with  height  of 
rear  flank 

Circumference  of  chest  with 
height  of  withers ' 

Width  of  loin  with  height  of 
chest  from  ground  .  .  .  • 

Width  of  chest  with  depth  of 
chest 


0.182  ±  0.037 

.020  i  .056 

.306  ±  .036 

•i&3±  .054 

•  144  ±  -055 

•  124  ±  .055 
•203  ±  .055 
.380  ±  .049 
.621  ±  .034 

•  i?9±  -057 
.365  ±  .072 


The  results  shown  in  Table  III  are  based  on  data  collected 
on  steers  during  the  two  winter  periods  of  1914-15  and  1915-16. 
All  measurements  considered  in  this  table  are  initial  measure- 
ments except  those  that  show  increases  of  dimensions  at  the 
close  of  the  fattening  period  as  compared  with  the  initial 
measurements.  The  coefficient  of  variation  is  shown  to  be 
greatest  on  increases  in  circumference  of  hind  flank,  paunch, 
and  chest,  and  the  increase  in  gains  in  live  weight. 

These  measurements  all  relate  to  increased  dimensions  and 
occur  in  those  parts  of  the  body  that  show  relatively  high  per- 
centage increase  over  initial  body  measurements  (Table  I). 


STATISTICAL   STUDY   OF   BODY  WEIGHTS    323 


Of  the  initial  measurements  the  greatest  coefficient  of  varia- 
tion is  11-9  ±0-04  per  cent  for  initial  live  weight.  In  all  the 
chest  measurements  the  coefficients  of  variation  are  relatively 
high  :  Width  at  point  of  shoulder  9-3  i  0-52,  width  of  fore 
flank  10-4  ^  0-6,  depth  of  chest  6-1  i  0-34,  and  circumference 
of  chest  6-9  ±0-39.  Likewise  the  mid  and  posterior  regions  of 
the  body  show  variations,  the  rear  flank  with-a  coefficient  of 
variation  of  8-7  ±  0-48,  circumference  of  rear  flank  6  i  0-34, 
width  of  loin  7-5  ±  0-43,  width  of  thurls  5-9  ±  0-34,  circum- 
ference of  paunch  Hi  0-62,  and  distance  of  hips  to  buttock 
5-2  ±  0-29. 

TABLE  III. — Means,  standard  deviations,  and  coefficients  of 
variation  presented  in  correlation  tables. 


Number 
of 
steers 

Measurements 

Mean 

Standard  deviations 

Coefficient 
of  variation 

pounds 

pounds 

Per  cent 

388 

Average  daily  gain   .   .    . 

1.93  ±  0.016 

0.446  di  O.OII 

23.1  di  0.84 

388 

Initial  live  weight     .   .    . 

893.93  ±  3-94 

106.88    d:  2.77 

H.9±     -04 

142 

Total  gain  in  Hve  weight 

288.55  :t  3-io 

54-77    ±  2.19 

I9.I  -^-  1.  08 

Inches 

'  Inches 

142 

Increase  in  circumference 

of  chest   

8.13  d.:      10 

1-87    db    -074 

23.0  ±  i-3o 

142 

Width  of  rear  fl  ink  .   .   . 

19-25  ±     -°9 

1.69     dz    .06 

8-7  ±    -48 

142 

Circumference  of  rear  flank 

72.76  ±     .25 

4-40    db    -i7 

6.0  d:    -34 

142 

Height  of  shoulder  point 

34.10  Jj    .08 

1-57    dr    -06 

4-5  it    -25 

142 

Height  of  rear  flank     .    . 

30.23  ±    .09 

1.67    ±    .06 

5-5  d;    -3i 

142 

Distance,  hip  to  buttock 

18.69  ±    .05 

99    ±    .03 

5-2  di    -29 

'37 

Width  of  loin     

13.96  d;,     .06 

1.05      ±      .22 

7-5  ±    -43 

142 

Circumference  of  chest     . 

69.82  i      .22 

3.91     di    -01 

6-9  i    -39 

T  A  *y 

Depth  of  chest      «    . 

ry    *•      *7*.          1                     x^Q 

I    1Q      -4-        06^ 

6  I    -1-        1-1 

1  ov    m    •  u  j 

"•  l    H.      O^ 

142 

Width  of  fore  flank  .   .    . 

15.02   ±_       .08 

1-57    dr    .06 

10.4  dz    .60 

142 

Distance,  chest  to  ground 

22.89  di    -°6 

i  .  r  8     4^    -°4 

5.1  T   .28 

T  ^f) 

Width  of  thurl  

T  *7    lf\   -I—         O  C 

T    OQ        -4-         O/l 

*>  O    -t—         "^/l 

142 

L/ength  of  head  

x9-53  i    .°4 

.81    +     o^t 

4.1  ^p     .23 

*  *f 

142 

length    of    shoulder    to 

*•        1Z      •    O 

buttock       .    . 

C  C    f  f\       In            T  *7 

3  02      -^  28/1 

M4-  •  ^o 

35*        J^     *    / 

•  w<fi        _^jj^    *.u<^ 

HI      "jw 

142 

Increase  in  circumference 

3^26  "4r      16 

2  06      4-       I  J 

35-8  ±  2.02 

142 

Height  of  withers  .... 

49.50  ±  1.07 

^•y-7    -j_    •*•* 
1-95    T    .07 

4-9  ±    .27 

142 

Width  at  point  of  shoulder 

16.42  i    .08 

1.54    ±    .06 

93  ±    -52 

142 

Circumference  of  paunch. 

8i.6odr    .56 

10.04    4:  4-°2 

i  o.o  d:    -62 

138 

Increase  in  circumference 

of  rear  flank          .    .  .. 

1  7.52  ~b    .20 

0     CT         4-        .14 

46  6  4-  2  67 

O'O1       JL.      •**> 

<JV/.\/    J^     A.v  / 

324 


THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 


The  measurements  affected  most  by  growth. show  the  least 
variations  and  include  the  distance  of  shoulder  point,  rear 
flank,  and  withers  from  the  ground,  length  of  head,  and  dis- 
tance of  shoulder  point  to  buttock. 

In  general,  Table  III  shows  the  greatest  variation  in  those 
regions  of  the  body  which  change  most  in  a  fattening  steer  and 
those  regions  affected  most  by  deposition  of  fat  and  develop- 
ment of  muscular  tissue. 

Table  IV,  a  summary  of  the  coefficients  of  correlation,  shows 
that  increases  in  body  measurements  have  a  closer  relationship 
with  gains  in  live  weight  than  the  initial  measurements.  With 
the  exception  of  initial  weight  these  measurements,  as  shown 
in  Table  II,  also  had  high  coefficients  of  variation. 

TABLE  IV. — Summary  of  correlations 


Daily 

Initial  weight  per  steer  (pounds) 

•a 

gain 
(pounds) 

1300 

i  250 

\  200 

i  150 

I  IOO 

1050 

I  000 

95o 

900 

850 

800 

75o 

700 

* 

3-2 

i 

2.8 

— 

__ 

— 

— 

I 

I 

3 

I 

I 

2 

I 

i 

— 

11 

2.6 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

4 

2 

2 

4 

I 

3 

3 

I 

20 

2-4 

— 

I 

— 

I 

2 

I 

5 

8 

1  1 

7 

6 

3 

2 

47 

2.2 

— 

I 

— 

2 

2 

— 

4 

7 

4 

7 

4 

5 



36 

2.0 

I 

I 

.  — 

3 



I 

4 

7 

9 

16 

9 

12 

2 

65 

1.8 

— 

I 

— 

3 

2 

2 

5 

7 

ii 

10 

9 

7 

6 

63 

1.6 

— 

— 

I 

— 



I 

5 

3 

5 

4 

4 

5 

4 

32 

1.4 

— 

— 

— 

1  i 

2 



4 

4 

10 

3 

7 

i 

i 

33 

1.2 

— 

— 

2 

— 



2 

2 

4 

2 

6 

2 

i 

I 

22 

1.0 

— 

—  . 

—  *. 

— 







I 

2 

— 

I 

i 

— 

5 

0.8 

— 

— 



— 

— 

I 



— 

2 

— 



— 

— 

3 

Total 

1 

4 

3 

10 

9 

'13 

34 

45 

61 

56 

46 

39 

IT 

338 

Mean  live  "weight pounds  893.93      i  3.94 

Mean  daily  gain do.  1.95      -f    .016 

Standard  deviation  of  live  weight do.       106.88      ±  2.777 

Standard  deviation  of  daily  gain do.  0.446    ±-   .oil 

Correlation do.  0.0364  i    .036 


The  correlation  coefficients  for  the  two  body  circumferences 
of  chest  and  rear  flank,  the  width  of  thurls  (hip  joint),  and  the 
distance  of  hip  to  buttock  show  the  closest  relationship  of  all 


STATISTICAL  STUDY  OF   BODY  WEIGHTS    325 

the  initial  measurements  with  gains  in  live  weight.  This  sug- 
gests the  possibilities  of  using  these  measurements  in  the  selec- 
tion of  feeding  steers,  at  least  for  experimental  purposes,  as  a 
means  of  reducing  the  experimental  error  caused  by  individu- 
ality of  animals. 

The  measurement  of  initial  weight  shows  no  relationship 
with  gains,  although  this  is  usually  considered  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  in  selection  of  steers  for  experimental 
purposes. 

Measurements  that  show  intermediate  relationship  as  indi- 
cated by  coefficients  of  correlation  are  width  of  loin,  depth  of 
chest,  width  of  fore  flank,  length  of  head,  height  of  withers, 
circumference  of  paunch,  and  width  of  shoulders. 

Measurements  in  which  slight  or  no  relationship  exist  as 
shown  by  correlation  coefficients  are  initial  live  weight,  width 
of  rear  flank,  height  at  shoulder  point,  and  the  distance  :>f  rear 
flank  and  chest  from  the  ground. 

A  close  relationship  of  circumference  of  chest  with  height  of 
withers  is  indicated  by  r  ±  0-621  ±  0-034.  Likewise,  the  width 
of  chest  and  depth  of  chest  by  r  =  0-365  ±  0-072  show  a 
definite  relationship. 

The  hind  quarters  of  a  steer  are  more  important  than  the 
fore  quarters  in  determining  the  gaining  capacity  of  a  steer, 
with  the  exception  of  the  circumference  of  chest  as  shown  by 
a  correlation  coefficient  of  0-224  ±0-054  for  width  of  thurls, 
0-271  ±0-053  for  distance  of  hip  to  buttock,  and  0-221  ±0-053 
for  circumference  of  rear  flank. 

The  circumference  of  chest  and  rear  flank  are  more  impor- 
tant in  ascertaining  gains  than  feed  capacity  as  indicated  by 
the  circumference  of  paunch. 


LIST  OF  MEAT  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  WORKS 
IN  AUSTRALASIA 

NEW  SOUTH   WALES 
Alexandria  Meat  Preserving  Works,  Alexandria.— Capacity,  80,000  12-oz. 

tins  per  week. 
AnglJSS   and   Co.    (N.S.W.)    Prop.    Ltd.,    Wm.,   Daroobalgie  Freezing  Works, 

Forbes. — Capacity,  6000  2-lb.  tins  preserved  meat  per  day. 
Barnes    Ltd.,   James,   Alexandria. — Capacity,    24,000    12-oz.    tins  preserved 

meat  per  day. 
Byron   Bay   Packing  and   Chilling  Company   Ltd.,  Byron  Bay.— Capacity, 

11,000  24-oz.  tins  preserved  meat  per  day. 
Cooke  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  John,  Sandown  Freezing  Works,  Parramatta.— 

Capacity,  10,000  12-oz.  tins  preserved  meat  per  day. 

Glen    Packing   Company,   Camperdown. — Capacity,    33,000   24-oz.   tins  pre- 
served meat  per  day. 
Hunter  River  Meat  Preserving  Company  Ltd.,  Leichhardt.— Capacity,  20,000 

24-oz.  tins  preserved  meat  daily. 

Kensington  Meat  Preserving -Company,  Ramornie. 

Lily  field  Packing  Company  Ltd.,  Leichhardt.— Capacity,  15,000  24-oz.  tins 
preserved  meat  per  day. 

Little  and  Co.,  Robert,  Merriwa. — Rabbit  canning  works. 

National  Meat  Preserving  Company  Ltd.,  Balmain.— Capacity,  33,000  24-oz. 
tins  preserved  meat  per  day. 

North  Coast  Co-operative  Company  Limited,  Byron  Bay. — Capacity,  approxi- 
mately 15,000  1-lb.  tins  preserved  meat  per  month. 

O.K.  Meat  Company,  South  Grafton. 

Sydney  Meat  Preserving  Company  Ltd.,  Auburn. — Capacity,  3500  6-lb.  tins 

preserved  meat  per  day. 

Union  Meat  Company  Limited,  Tibbereena. — Capacity,  6000  2-lb.  tins  pre- 
served rabbits  daily. 

Also  rabbit  canning  works  at  Coon  amble,  with  capacity  of  3000 
2-lb.  tins  daily. 

VICTORIA 

Angliss  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  Wm.,  Imperial  Freezing  Works,  Footscray.— 

Capacity,  100  cattle  and  1000  sheep  per  day. 
Borthwick  and  Sons  (Australasia)   Ltd.,  Thos.,  Portland  Freezing  Works, 

Portland. — Capacity,  20  cattle  per  day. 
Clark    and    Son    Prop.    Ltd.,    E.    A.,   Victorian    Export    Canning  Works. — 

Capacity,  2000  to  3000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 

Flemington  Meat  Preserving  Company  Prop.  Ltd.,  Lang's  Road,  Ascot  Vale. 
— Capacity,  25,000  24-oz.  tins  preserved  meat  per  day.  Accommoda- 
tion provided  for  slaughtering  2500  sheep  per  day. 

Geefong  Harbour  Trust,  Corio  Freezing  Works,  Geelong. 

326 


MEAT  CANNING  AND  PRESERVING  WORKS    327 

QUEENSLAND 

Australian   Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Alligator  Creek  Freezing  Works 

Townsville. — Capacity,  150  cattle  per  day. 

Brisbane  River  Freezing  Works,  Brisbane. — Capacity,   150  cattle 

per  day. 

Baynes  Bros.,  Queensport,  Brisbane. — Capacity,  80  cattle  per  day. 
Bergl  Australia  Ltd.,  Bowen  Meat  Freezing  Works,  Bowen. — Capacity,  50 

cattle  per  day. 

Birt  and  Co.  Ltd.,  Biboohra,  Cairns. — Capacity,  150  cattle  per  day. 
Borthwick  and  Sons  (Australasia)   Ltd.,  Thomas,  Moreton  Freezing  Works, 

Brisbane. — Capacity  not  specified. 
Central  Queensland  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Lakes  Creek  Freezing  Works, 

Rockhampton. — Capacity,  40,000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 
Cooke  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  John,  Redbank  Freezing  Works,  via  Brisbane. — 

Capacity,  50  cattle  per  day. 

Queensland  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Eagle  Farm  Freezing  Works,  Bris- 
bane.— Capacity,  70  cattle  per  day. 

Ross   River   Freezing   Works,    Townsville. — Capacity,    36,000   Ibs 

meat  per  day. 
Rosewarne  (Queensland)  Ltd.,  Brisbane. — Capacity,  1000  cattle  per  week. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 

South  Australian   Government. — Ocean  Steamers'  Wharf,  Port  Adelaide. — 

Capacity,  1000  6-lb.  or  3000  2-lb.  tins  of  meat  per  day. 
WilCOX,  Mofflin  Ltd.,  Compton,  Mt.  Gambier. — Used  for  canning  rabbits  only. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 

Proposed. 
Nor.- West  Meat  Works  Ltd.,  Carnarvon. — Capacity,  1500  sheep  per  day. 

NORTHERN  TERRITORY 

North  Australian  Meat  Co.  Ltd.,  Darwin.— Capacity,  not  specified. 

NEW  ZEALAND 

Borthwick  and  Sons  (Aust.)  Ltd.,  Thos.,  Waitara  Freezing  Works,  Waitara. 

— Capacity,  40  head  cattle  per  day. 
Canterbury  Frozen  Meat  and  O.P.  Export  Co.  Ltd.,  Belfast  Freezing  Works, 

Belfast. — Capacity,  3000  Ibs.  preserved  meat  per  day. 
East  Coast  Co-operative   Freezing  Co.   Ltd.,  Whakatane  Freezing  Works, 

Whakatane. — Capacity,  50  head  cattle  per  day. 
Enterprise  Meat  Works,  Winton. 
Feilding  Farmers'   Freezing  Co.   Ltd.,  Feilding  Freezing  Works,  Aorangi, 

Feilding. 

Gear  Meat  Preserving  and  Freezing  Company  of  N.Z.  Ltd.,  Petone  Freezing 
Works,  Petone.— Capacity,  3,000,000  Ibs.  meat  per  season. 

Gisborne  Sheepfarmers'  Frozen  Meat  Company  Ltd.,  Kaiti  Freezing  Works, 

Gisborne. — Capacity,  5000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 

Nelson  Bros.  Ltd.,  Tomoana  Freezing  Works,  Tomoana. — Capacity,  1000  to 
1200  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 


328  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

New  Zealand  Refrigerating  Company  Ltd.,  Imlay  Freezing  Works,  near  Wan- 

ganui. — Capacity,  6000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 

Islington   Freezing   Works,    Islington. — Capacity,    6000   Ibs.   meat 

per  day. 
New  Zealand  Farmers'  Co-operative  Bacon  and  Meat  Packing  Co.   Ltd. 

Ngahauranga  Works,  near  Wellington. — Capacity,  90  head  cattle  or 

30,000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 
Patea  Farmers'  Co-operative  Freezing  Co.  Ltd.,  Patea  Freezing  Works,  Can- 

ville. — Capacity,  16,000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 
Poverty  Bay  Farmers'   Meat  Co.  Ltd.,  Waipaoa  Freezing   Works,  Gisborne. 

— Capacity,  18,000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 
Taranaki    Farmers'    Meat  Co.   Ltd.,  New  Plymouth  Freezing  Works,   New 

Plymouth. — Capacity,  9000  Ibs.  meat  per  day. 
Tait,   W.   E.,  Woodlands  Meat  Preserving  Works,  Invercargill. — Capacity, 

11,000  Ibs.  preserved  meat  per  day. 

Wanganui  Meat  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Castlecliff  Freezing  Works,  Castle- 
cliff. — Capacity,  6500  Ibs.  preserved  meat  per  day. 
Wellington  Farmers'  Meat  Company  Ltd.  (1),  Waingawa  Freezing  Works,  near 

Masterton.— Capacity,  20,000  Ibs.  meat  daily. 
Wellington  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Ngahauranga  Freezing  Works,  near 

Wellington. — Capacity,  1500  carcases  mutton  per  day. 
Westfield   Freezing  Co.   Ltd.,  Westfield  Freezing  Works,  near  Auckland.— 

Sixty  bodies  beef  per  day. 
Whangarei  Freezing  Co.  Ltd.,  Whangarei  Freezing  Works,  Reatahi,  Whan- 

garei  Heads. — Twenty  bodies  beef  per  day. 
(1)  Capacity  being  increased  to  50,000  Ibs.  of  meat  per  day. 


LIST  OF  BEFKIGERATING-  WORKS  EMPLOYED  IN 
THE  MEAT  EXPORT  TRADE  IN  AUSTRALIA  AND 
NEW  ZEALAND 

GIVING  APPROXIMATE  DAILY  RECEIVING  AND   STORAGE   CAPACITY 

QUEENSLAND 
Australian  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Brisbane  River  Works,  Brisbane. — 

750  cattle  and  3000  sheep  per  day,  storage  capacity,  40,000  quarters 

beef  and  135,000  carcases  mutton  ;   total,  4000  tons. 

Alligator  Creek  Works,  Townsville. — 750  cattle  and  2000  sheep  per 

day ;    storage  capacity,   40,000  quarters  beef  and   135,000  carcases 

mutton  ;   total,  4000  tons.    ,-. 
Bergl  Australia  Ltd.,  Bowen  Meat  Freezing  Works,  Bowen. — 150  cattle  per 

day  ;   storage  capacity,  1500  tons. 
Birt  and  Co.  Ltd.,  Musgrave  Wharf  Cold  Stores,  South  Brisbane. — 100  cattle 

or  1100  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  750  tons. 

Murarrie  Works,  near  Brisbane. — 150  cattle  or  1500  sheep  per  day  ; 

storage  capacity,  700  tons. 
Borthwick    and    Sons    (Australasia)    Ltd.,    ThOS.,   Moreton   Freezing   Works, 

Brisbane. — 250  cattle  or  4000  sheep  per  day  ;    storage  capacity,  1000 

tons. 
Burdekin  River  Meat  Preserving  Company  Ltd.,  Burdekm  Works,  Sellheim. 

— 260  cattle  or  2000  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  1200  tons. 
Central  Queensland  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Lakes  Creek  Works,  Rock- 

hampton. — 500  cattle  or  3000  sheep  per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  3000 

tons. 
Cooke  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  John,  Redbank  Works,  via  Brisbane.— 400  cattle, 

or  280  cattle  and  1600  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  2800  tons. 

Gladstone  Meat  Works  of  Queensland  Ltd.,  Gladstone  Works,  Gladstone. — 

400  cattle  or  3500  sheep  per  day,  or  200  cattle  and  2000  sheep  per  day  ; 

storage  capacity,  2500  tons. 
Queensland  Government,  Charleville  Works,  Charleville.— Storage  capacity, 

160  quarters  beef,  600  to  800  carcases  of  mutton. 
Queensland  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Eagle  Farm  Works,  Brisbane.— 330 

cattle  and  300  sheep,  or  150  cattle  and  2000  sheep  per  day  ;    storage 

capacity,  32,000  quarters  beef,  or   105,000  carcasea  mutton  ;    total, 

2000  tons. 

Ross  River  Works,  Townsville. — 750  cattle,  or  700  cattle  and  1000 

sheep,  or  600  cattle  and  2000  sheep,  or  550  cattle  and  2500  sheep  per 

day ;     storage   capacity,    88,000   quarters   beef,    or   290,000   carcases 

mutton  ;  total,  5500  tons. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES 

AngliSS  and  Co.  (N.S.W.)  Prop.  Ltd.,  W.,  Daroobalgie  Works,  near  Forbes. 
—4000  sheep  and  250  cattle  per  day,  and  4000  crates  rabbits  weekly  ; 
storage  capacity,  100,000  carcases  lamb. 

Australian  Chilling  and  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Aberdeen  Works,  near  New- 
castle.— 100  cattle  and  3000  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  60,000 
carcases  mutton., 


330  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Cooke  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  John,  Sandown  Works,  near  Parramatta. — 7000 

sheep,  or  400  cattle  and  3000  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  255,000 

carcases  mutton. 
Crystal  Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Company  Ltd.,  works,  Balmain,  Sydney. — 1500 

sheep  per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  40,000  carcases  mutton. 
Metropolitan  Ice  and  Cold  Storage  Company  Ltd.,  works,  Harris  Street,  Sydney. 

—1200  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  40,000  carcases  mutton. 
Metropolitan  Meat  Industry  Board,  temporary  meat  distributing  depot,  Pyr- 

mont,  Sydney. — Storage  capacity,  1000  carcases  mutton. 
Municipal  Cold  Storage  Works,  Sydney.— Storage  capacity,  100,000  carcases 

mutton. 
New  South  Wales  Fresh  Food  and  Ice  Company  Ltd.,  Darling  Harbour  Works, 

Sydney. — 6000  sheep  per  day  ;    storage  capacity,    170,000  carcases 

mutton. 
Pastoral  Finance  Association  Ltd.,  Kirribilli  Point  Works,  Sydney.— 2500 

sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  75,000  carcases  mutton. 
Riverina  Frozen  Meat  Company  Prop.  Ltd.,  Deniliquin  Works,  Deniliquin 

(shipping,  via  Melbourne). — 1500  sheep  per  day  ;    storage  capacity, 
40,000  carcases  mutton. 

Sydney  Ice  Skating  Rink  and  Cold  Storage  Company  Ltd.,  cold  stores,  Harris 
Street,  Ultimo,  Sydney.— 2500  sheep  per  day;  storage  capacity, 
60,000  carcases  mutton. 

IN  COURSE  OF  [ERECTION 

Walker  and  Co.,  F.  J.,  Tibbereena  Meat  Works. — Estimated  killing  capacity, 

1000  sheep  and  80  head  cattle  per  day. 
Waterside  Cold  Stores  Ltd.,  Jones  Bay,  Sydney. — Estimated  storage  capacity, 

100,000  carcases  mutton. 

VICTORIA 

AngliSS  and  Co.  Pty.  Ltd.,  Wm.,*  works,  Bourke  Street,  Melbourne. — 2000 
lambs  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  25,000  carcases  lamb. 

City  Market  Cool  Stores  and  Ice  Works,*  King  Street,  Melbourne. — 
2000  carcases  lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  120,000  carcases  lamb. 

Imperial  Freezing  Works,  Footscray,  near  Melbourne. — 11,000  sheep 
or  lambs  and  250  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  250,000  carcases 
lamb  or  equivalent  in  beef. 

Borthwick  and  Sons  (Australasia)  Ltd.,  Thomas,  Portland  Freezing  Works, 

Portland. — 40   cattle   and    1100   lambs   per   day;    storage   capacity, 

20,000  carcases  lamb. 

Brooklyn  Freezing  Works,  Footscray. — 5000  lambs  and  50  cattle 

per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  76,800  carcases  lamb. 
Cooke  and  Co.  Prop.  Ltd.,  John,  Newport  Freezing  Works,  near  Melbourne. 

— Kill  6000  and  freeze  4000  lambs  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  120,000 

carcases  lamb. 

Fletcher  Ltd.,  W.  and  R.,  North  Shore  Freezing  Works,  Geelong. — 1600  lambs 

per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  28,000  carcases  lamb. 
Geelong  Harbour  Trust,  Geelong.— 200  cattle  and  9000  sheep  or  lambs  per 

day  ;   storage  capacity,  150,000  carcases  mutton. 

Goulburn  Valley  Industries  Company  Ltd.,  Shepparton.— 1600  sheep  or  lambs 

per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  50,000  carcases  lamb. 
Melbourne  Cool  Stores  and  Ice  Works  (W.  Dunkerley,  propr.),  Flinders  Lane, 

Melbourne. — Storage  only  ;   capacity,  60,000  carcases  lamb. 


REFRIGERATING  WORKS  331 

Melbourne  Ice  Skating  and  Refrigerating  Company,  The  Glaciarium,  Mel- 
bourne.— 2500  carcases  lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  45,000  car- 
cases lamb. 

Metropolitan  Ice  and  Cold  Store  Works  (W.  Dunkerley,  Propr.),  Blackwood 
Street,  North  Melbourne. — Storage  only  ;  capacity,  50,000  carcases 
lamb. 

Sennitt  and  Son  Prop.  Ltd.,*  works,  Miller  Street,  Melbourne.— 1000  carcases 
lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  30,000  carcases  lamb. 

Victorian  Butter  Factories  Co-operative  Co.,*  works,  Flinders  Street  Exten- 
sion, Melbourne. — 2000  carcases  lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity, 
50,000  carcases  lamb. 

Victorian  Government,*  Victoria  Docks  Stores,  Melbourne. — 3500  carcases 
mutton  or  lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  150,000  carcases  lamb. 
(Total  refrigerated  space,  750,000  cubic  feet.) 

Wimmera  Inland  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Murtoa  Works,  Murtoa.— 2600  sheep 
or  lambs  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  60,000  carcases  lamb. 

SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 

South  Australian  Government,  State  Refrigerating  Works,  Port  Adelaide. — 
120  cattle  and  8000  sheep  or  lambs  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  300,000 
carcases  mutton  (600,000  cubic  feet). 

Light  Square  Works,  Adelaide. — 3000  carcases  mutton  per  day  ; 
storage  capacity,  65,000  carcases  mutton  (150,000  cubic  feet). 

NORTHERN  TERRITORY 

Vestey  Bros.,  Darwin,  Northern  Territory,  500  cattle  per  day  ;  capacity, 
6000  tons  beef,  equivalent  to  about  200,000  carcases  mutton. 

WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 

Baker  Bros.,  Works,  Fremantle. — 100-150  cattle  per  week  ;  storage  capacity, 
26,139  cubic  feet. 

Western  Fresh  Food  and  Ice  Company,  Works,  Fremantle.— 1000  carcases 
lamb  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  3500  cubic  feet. 

Western  Australian  Government,  Wyndham  Works,  Wyndham.— Approxi- 
mately 300  to  400  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  16,400  qrs.  beef 
—1264  tons. 

NEW  ZEALAND 

Auckland  Farmers'  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Horatiu  Works,  Horatiu,  Wai- 
kato. — 3000  sheep  or  220  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  180,000 
carcases  mutton. 

Southdown  Works,  Penrose,  Auckland. — 3000  sheep  or  220  cattle 
per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  172,000  carcases  mutton. 

Auckland  Works,  Auckland. — Storage  only,  130,600  carcases  mutt  on. 
Borthwick  and  Sons  (Australasia)  Ltd.,  Thos.,  Paki  Paki  Works,  Hastings, 
Hawkes  Bay. — 2000  sheep  and  30  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity, 
60,000  carcases  mutton. 

Canterbury  Works,  Belfast,  near  Christchurch. — 4000  sheep  per 
day  ;  storage  capacity,  80,000  carcases  mutton. 

Waitara  Works,  Waitara,  Taranaki. — 2000  sheep  and  200  cattle  per 
day  ;  storage  capacity,  80,000  carcases  mutton. 

*  The  figures  given  here  denote  only  such  space  as  is  set  apart  for  the 
frozen  meat  trade.  The  total  capacity  of  the  works  is  in  most  cases  consider  - 
ably  larger.  The  stores  are  also  used  for  freezing  and  storing  butter,  rabbits 
and  other  perishable  produce. 


332  THE  WORLD'S  MEAT  FUTURE 

Canterbury  Frozen  Meat  and  D.P.  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Belfast  Works, 
Belfast,  Canterbury. — 6000  sheep  and  100  cattle  per  day  ;  storage 
capacity,  190,000  carcases  mutton. 

Fairfield  Works,  Ashburton. — 4000  sheep  and  25  cattle  per  day  ; 
storage  capacity,  80,000  carcases  mutton. 

Pareora  Works,  Pareora,  near  Timaru. — 4500  sheep  and  35  cattle 
per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  178,000  carcases  mutton. 
East  Coast  Co-operative  Freezing  Co.  Ltd.,  (1)  Whakatane  Works,  Whaka- 
tane,  Bay  of  Plenty. — 1000  sheep  and  200  cattle  per  day  ;     storage 
capacity,  100,000  carcases  mutton. 

Feilding  Farmers'  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Feilding  Works,  Aorangi,  Feilding. 
-  1400     sheep     per     day ;     storage      capacity,      130,000      carcases 
mutton. 
Gear  Meat  Preserving  and  Freezing  Company  Ltd.  Petone  Works,  Petone, 

near  Wellington. — 10,000  sheep  and  100  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capa- 
city, 400,000  carcases  mutton. 

Gisborne  Sheepfarmers'  Frozen  Meat  Company  Ltd.,  Kaiti  Works,  Kaiti,  Gis- 
borne.— 4500  sheep  and  120  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  234,000 
carcases  mutton. 

Hawkes  Bay  Farmers'  Meat  Company  Ltd.,  Whakatu  Works,  Whakatu,  near 

Hastings. — 2000  sheep  and  80  cattle  per  day ;  storage  capacity, 
130,000  carcases  mutton. 

National  Mortgage  and  Agency  Company  Ltd.,  Longburn  Works,  Longburn, 
near  Palmerston  North. — 1500  sheep  and  70  cattle  per  day  ;  storage 
capacity,  120,000  carcases  mutton. 

Nelson  Bros.  Ltd. — Tomoana  Works,  Tomoana,  Hawkes  Bay. — 3000  sheep 
and  80  cattle  per  day ;  storage  capacity,  155,500  carcases 
mutton. 

Taruheru  Works,  Taruheru,  near  Gisborne. — 3000  sheep  and  85 
cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  95,000  carcases  mutton. 

Hornby  Works,  Hornby,  near  Christchurch. — 1500  sheep  per  day  ; 
storage  capacity,  64,000  carcases  mutton. 

Nelson  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Stoke  Works,  Stoke,  near  Nelson. — 350 
sheep  and  20  cattle  per  day ;  storage  capacity,  30,000  carcases 
mutton. 

New  Zealand  Refrigerating  Co.  Ltd.,  Islington  Works,  Islington,  near  Christ- 
church. — 7000  sheep  and  50  cattle  per  day;  storage  capacity,,  291,000 
carcases  mutton. 

Smithfield  Works,  Smithfield,  near  Timaru.— 6000  sheep  and  50 
cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  186,000  carcases  mutton. 

Pukeuri  Works,  Pukeuri,  near  Oamaru.— 3000  sheep  per  day  ; 
storage  capacity,  200,000  carcases  mutton. 

Burnside  Works,  Burnside,  near  Dunedin. — 3500  sheep  and  50  cattle 
per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  216,000  carcases  mutton. 

Picton  Works,  Mar  Iborough.— -1000  sheep  and  30  cattle  per  day  ; 
storage  capacity,  23,000  carcases  mutton. 

Imlay  Works,   Wanganui. — 6000  sheep   and   200  cattle  per_day  ; 
storage  capacity,  250,000  carcases  mutton. 
New  Zealand  Farmers'  Co-operative  Bacon  and  Meat  Packing  Co.  Ltd.,  Eltham 

Works,  Taranaki. — 150  pigs  and  60  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity, 
25,000  carcases  mutton. 

Frankton  Junction  Works,  Waikato.— 300  pigs  per  day  ;  storage 
capacity,  25,000  carcases  mutton. 

Ngahauranga  Works,  near  Wellington. — 1200  pigs,  70  cattle  and 
600  sheep  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  50,000  carcases  mutton. 

Te  Aroha  Works,  Thames  Vajley, — 150  pigs  par  d%y. 


333  REFRIGERATING  WORKS 

North  British  and  Hawkes  Bay  Freezing  Company,  Spit  Works,  Port  Ahuriri, 
Napier. — 2500  sheep  per  day ;  storage  capacity,  50,000  carcases 
mutton. 

North  Canterbury  Sheep  Farmers'  Co-operative  Freezing  Co.,  Kaiapoi  Works, 

near  Christchurch. — 2500  sheep  and  25  cattle  per  day  ;   storage  capa- 
city, 200,000  carcases  mutton. 
Otaihape  Farmers'  Meat  and  Produce  Company  Ltd.,  Winiata  Works,  Winiata, 

near  Taihape. — 1200  sheep  and  50  cattle  per  day  ;   storage  capacity, 

120,000  carcases  mutton. 
Patea  Farmers'  Freezing  Company,  Patea  Works,  Canville,  near  Patea.— 1500 

sheep  and    150  cattle  per  day ;    storage  capacity,    140,000  carcases 

mutton. 
Poverty  Bay  Farmers'  Meat  Company,  Waipaoa  Works,  near  Gisborne,  Poverty 

Bay. — 4000  sheep  and  200  cattle  per  day ;   storage  capacity,  200,000 

carcases  mutton. 
Southland  Frozen  Meat  and  Produce  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Bluff  Works, 

Bluff,  Southland. — Storage  only,  115,000  carcases  mutton. 

Mataura  Works,  Mataura,  Southland. — 2000  sheep  and  100  cattle 

per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  92,000  carcases  mutton. 

Wallacetown  Works,  Makarewa,   Southland. — 2000  sheep  and   120 

cattle  per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  74,000  carcases  mutton. 
South    OtagO    Freezing    Company    Ltd.,   Finegand   Works,    Balclutha,    South 

Otago. — 2500  sheep  and  40  cattle  per  day  ;   storage  capacity,  200,000 

carcases  mutton. 
Taranaki  Farmers'    Meat  Co.   Ltd.,  New  Plymouth  Works,  New  Plymouth, 

Taranaki. — 1500  sheep   and  150  cattle  per  day  ;    storage   capacity, 

120,000  carcases  mutton. 
Tokomaru  Sheepfarmers'  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Tokomaru  Works,  Toko- 

;maru  Bay. — 3000  sheep   and   50  cattle  per  day  ;     storage  capacity, 

130,000  carcases  mutton. 

Wairoa  Farmers'  Co-operative  Meat  Co.  Ltd.,  Wairoa  Works,  Wairoa,  Hawkes 

Bay. — 2000  sheep  and  50  cattle  per  day ;    storage  capacity,  125,000 
carcases  mutton. 

Wanganui  Meat  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Castlecliff  Works,  Castlecliff,  Wan- 
ganui  River. — 3000  sheep  and  80  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity, 
110,000  carcases  mutton. 

Ward  and  Co.  Ltd.,  J.  G.,  Ocean  Beach  Freezing  Works,  Bluff.— 3000  sheep 
and  120  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  115,000  carcases  mutton. 

Wellington  Farmers'  Meat  Company  Ltd.  (2)  Waingawa  Works,  Waingawa, 
near  Masterton. — 7000  sheep  and  250  cattle  per  day ;  storage  capa- 
city, 270,000  carcases  mutton. 

Kakariki  Works,  Kakariki,  near  Marton. — 2000  sheep  and  50  cattle 
per  day  ;  storage  capacity,  100,000  carcases  mutton. 

Wellington  Meat  Export  Company  Ltd.,  Ngahauranga  Works,  Ngahauranga, 
near  Wellington. — 7000  sheep  and  130  cattle  per  day  ;  storage  capa- 
city, 240,000  carcases  mutton. 

Westfield  Freezing  Company  Ltd.  (3)  Westfield  Works,  near  Auckland.— 2000 
sheep  and  200  cattle  per  day ;  storage  capacity,  175,000  carcases 
mutton. 

(1)  Storage  for  an  additional  40,000  carcases  in  course  of  erection. 

(2)  Storage  for  an  additional  80,000  carcases  in  course  of  erection. 

(3)  Storage  for  an  additional  50,000  carcases  in  course  of  erection. 
Whangarei  Freezing  Company  Ltd.,  Whangarei  Works,  Reotahi,  Whangerei 

Heads. — 1200  sheep  or  150  cattle  per  day  ;    storage  capacity,  90,000 
carcases  mutton. 


LIST   OF   FKEEZING   WOKKS   OPEEATING   IN 
SOUTH  AMEEICA. 

ARGENTINA 

Compania  Sansinena  de  Carnes  Congeladas. — Works,  Bahia  Blanca  (Cuatreros), 

Buenos  Aires. 

Sociedad  Anonima  "  La  Blanca  "  Company.— Works,  Buenos  Aires. 
Frigorifico  Argentine  Central. — Works,  Buenos  Aires. 

Compania  Swift  de  la  Plata. — Works,  La  Plata  ;  also  Gallegos  and  San  Julian. 
La  Plata  Cold  Storage  Company. — Works,  Buenos  Aires. 
Frigorifico  Armour  de  la  Plata. — Works,  La  Plata. 
British  and  Argentine  Meat  Company  Ltd.— Works,  Campana. 
British  and  Argentine  Meat  Company  Ltd.  (Las  Palmas  Produce  Co.). — Works, 

Las  Palmas. 

Anglo-South  American  Meat  Co. — Works,  Zarate. 
Smithfield  and  Argentine  Meat  Co.  Ltd.— Works,  Zarate. 
Swift  and  Company.— Works,  Saladillo. 

New  Plant  building. — Company's  title  not  settled. — Santa  Cruz. 
Frigorifico  Wilson. — Works,  Buenos  Aires. 
Le  Frigorifico  Santafecino  (a  French-Argentine  Syndicate). — Works,  Venado 

Tuerto  (Santa  Fe). 

CHILE   AND   PATAGONIA 

La  Compania  Frigorifico  Argentine  de  Tierra  del  Fuego. — Works,  Rio  Grand. 

Frigerico  Punta  Arenas. — Works,  Punta  Arenas. 

New  Patagonia  Meat  and  Cold  Storage  Company. — Works,  Puerto  Gallegos. 

South  American  Export  Syndicate  Ltd.— Works,  Rio  Seco. 

La  Compania  de  Frigorifica,  Patagonia. — Works,  San  Gregorio. 

La  Compania  Frigorifica  de  Puerto  Natales. — Works,  Puerto  Natales. 

Cia  Exploadora  de  Tierra  del  Fuego. — Works,  Puerto  Bories. 

URUGUAY 

La  Frigorifica  Uruguaya.— Works,  Monte  Video. 

Frigorifico  Swift  de  Monte  Video. — Works,  Monte  Video. 

Frigorifico  Hall  (Vestey  Bros.). — Works,  Monte  Video. 

Frigorifico  Artigas.— Works,  Monte  Video. 

Morris  and  Co.— Works,  Monte  Video. 

Armour  and  Co.,  del  Uruguay  Sec.  Anon. — Works,  Monte  Video. 

PARAGUAY 

Compania  Paraguaya  de  Frigorificos  de  Carnes  Congeladas.— (Canning  only.) 

Central  Products  Company. — Works,  Asuncion  ;   (canning  only). 

Frigorifico  San  Salvador  de  Paraguay.— Works,  San  Salvador. 

334 


FREEZING  WORKS  335 

BRAZIL 

Companha  Armour  do  Brazil  Sociedad  Anonima  Santa  Anna  do  Livramento. 

Works,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
Companha  Armour  do  Brazil  Sociedad  Anonima  Frigerifico  Sao  Paulo  (Sao 

Paulo).— Works,  Santos. 
Companha  Mechanica  e  Importadora  de  Sao  Paulo. — Works,  Barretos,  near, 

Sao  Paulo. 

Companha  Frigorifico  e  Pastoral  do  Sao  Paulo. — Works,  Barretos. 
Continental  Products  CO.— Works,  Ozaseo  Sao  Paulo  ;   Santos. 
Companha  Brittannica  do  Carnes. — Works,  Bio  de  Janeiro. 
Empreza  de  Armazen  Frigorificos. — Works,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Central  Products  Co. — Works,  Sao  Paulo. 

Union  Cold  Storage  CO. — Works,  Mendes. 

Companha  Swift  do  Brazil. — WTorks,  Rio  Grand  do  Sul  ;   also  at  Rosario. 

Port  Company. — Freezing  and  Storage  only  at  Rio. 

Companha  Docas  do  Santos. — Freezing  and  Storage  only  at  Santos. 

Brazilero    Co.  (Empreza  Armazen   Frigorificos). — Leased    to    British    and 

Argentine  Meat  Co. — Works,  Rio  Grande  do  Sul. 
Brazilian  Meat  Co.— Works,  Mendes. 

VENEZUELA 
Venezuelan  Meat  and  Products  Syndicate  Ltd.— Works,  Puerto  Cabello. 


PRINTED   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN 
WM.    BRENDON    AND   SON.    LTD.,    PLYMOUTH. 


t      30Aug'56CB 
REC'D  LD 

SEP    81956 


2Q'&7  -9  Wft 
.aAhl  BEP*< 


LD  21 


-100»-9,'48  (3399=16)476 


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